Cancer Cell-derived Extracellular Vesicles Research Articles

Hypoxia-induced LAMB2-enriched extracellular vesicles promote peritoneal metastasis in gastric cancer via the ROCK1-CAV1-Rab11 axis.

Peritoneal metastasis is one of the most common risk factors contributing to the poor prognosis of gastric cancer. We previously reported that extracellular vesicles from gastric cancer cells could facilitate peritoneal metastasis. However, their impact on gastric cancer-induced peritoneal metastasis under hypoxic conditions remains unclear. This study aims to elucidate how hypoxia-resistant gastric cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles affect the peritoneal metastasis of normoxic gastric cancer cells. Proteomic analysis revealed elevated levels of Caveolin1 and Laminin β2 in hypoxia-resistant gastric cancer cells and their corresponding extracellular vesicles. Importantly, Caveolin1 was found to play a central role in mediating Laminin β2 sorting into extracellular vesicles derived from hypoxia-resistant gastric cancer cells, and subsequently, extracellular vesicle-associated Laminin β2 promoted peritoneal metastasis in normoxic gastric cancer cells by activating the AKT pathway. Further investigation confirmed that Caveolin1 activation by Rho-related Coiled-coil kinase 1-mediated phosphorylation of Y14 residue is a key factor facilitating Laminin β2 sorting into extracellular vesicles. Moreover, Y14 phosphorylated- Caveolin1 enhanced Laminin β2 sorting by activating Rab11. Finally, our study demonstrated that a combined assessment of plasma extracellular vesicle-associated Caveolin1 and extracellular vesicle-associated Laminin β2 could provide an accurate predictive tool for peritoneal metastasis occurrence in gastric cancer.

The RNA binding protein IGF2BP2/IMP2 alters the cargo of cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles supporting tumor-associated macrophages

BackgroundTumor cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs) that contribute to the polarization of macrophages towards tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). High expression levels of the RNA binding protein IGF2BP2/IMP2 are correlated with increased tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and poor prognosis in the clinic. However, there is a lack of understanding of whether IMP2 affects the cargo of cancer cell-derived EVs, thereby modulating macrophage polarization.MethodsEVs were isolated from IMP2-expressing HCT116 parental cells (WT) and CRISPR/Cas9 IMP2 knockout (KO) cells. EVs were characterized according to MISEV guidelines, microRNA cargo was assessed by microRNA-Seq, and the protein cargo was analyzed by proteomics. Primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDMs) were polarized by EVs, and the expression of genes and surface markers was assessed using qPCR and flow cytometry, respectively. Morphological changes of macrophages, as well as the migratory potential of cancer cells, were assessed by the Incucyte® system and macrophage matrix degradation potential by zymography. Changes in the metabolic activity of macrophages were quantified using a Seahorse® analyzer. For in vivo studies, EVs were injected into the yolk sac of zebrafish larvae, and macrophages were isolated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting.ResultsEVs from WT and KO cells had a similar size and concentration and were positive for 25 vesicle markers. The expression of tumor-promoting genes was higher in macrophages polarized with WT EVs than KO EVs, while the expression of TNF and IL6 was reduced. A similar pattern was observed in macrophages from zebrafish larvae treated in vivo. WT EV-polarized macrophages showed a higher abundance of TAM-like surface markers, higher matrix degrading activity, as well as a higher promotion of cancer cell migration. MicroRNA-Seq revealed a significant difference in the microRNA composition of WT and KO EVs, particularly a high abundance of miR-181a-5p in WT EVs, which was absent in KO EVs. Inhibitors of macropinocytosis and phagocytosis antagonized the delivery of miR-181a-5p into macrophages and the downregulation of the miR-181a-5p target DUSP6. Proteomics data showed differences in protein cargo in KO vs. WT EVs, with the differentially abundant proteins mainly involved in metabolic pathways. WT EV-treated macrophages exhibited a higher basal oxygen consumption rate and a lower extracellular acidification rate than KO EV-treated cells.ConclusionOur results show that IMP2 determines the cargo of EVs released by cancer cells, thereby modulating the EVs' actions on macrophages. Expression of IMP2 is linked to the secretion of EVs that polarize macrophages towards a tumor-promoting phenotype.

Elevated extracellular vesicular Nm23-H1 subdues the pro-migratory potential of breast cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles

Metastasis is a key determinant in cancer mortality which is often associated with decreased levels of Nm23-H1, a well-established metastasis suppressor. Despite lacking a secretion signal peptide, Nm23-H1 has been reported to be present in the extracellular space and enclosed within extracellular vesicles (EVs). While the presence of Nm23-H1 proteins in EVs released by cancer cells has been observed through proteomics profiling, the role of vesicular Nm23-H1 remains unclear. Here, we investigated the function of vesicular Nm23-H1 using MDA-MB-231 (highly metastatic, low Nm23-H1) and MCF-7 (low/non-metastatic, high Nm23-H1) breast cancer cell models. Our findings confirm that Nm23-H1 is indeed encapsulated within EVs, and its levels can be manipulated through overexpression and knockdown approaches. Functional assays revealed that EVs derived from MDA-MB-231 cells that contained high levels of Nm23-H1 exhibit impaired pro-migratory properties, suggesting that vesicular Nm23-H1 may act as a metastasis suppressor. Furthermore, EVs with increased levels of Nm23-H1 altered the transcript levels of multiple cancer-related genes in recipient cells and stimulated type I interferon signaling through STAT1 phosphorylation. These results suggest the existence of an unconventional signaling pathway mediated by the uptake of EVs enriched with Nm23-H1, which may contribute to the anti-metastatic effect of Nm23-H1 in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, our study demonstrates that elevated Nm23-H1 levels can impact the abundance of various other proteins encapsulated within breast cancer cell-derived EVs, such as SUSD2 (Sushi Domain Containing 2) which can also modulate metastasis.

CCAAT enhancer binding protein delta activates vesicle associated membrane protein 3 transcription to enhance chemoresistance and extracellular PD-L1 expression in triple-negative breast cancer

BackgroundChemoresistance and immunosuppression are two major obstacles in the current anti-cancer treatments. This study investigates the involvements of a CCAAT enhancer binding protein delta (CEBPD)/vesicle associated membrane protein 3 (VAMP3) axis in paclitaxel (PTX) resistance and immune evasion in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).MethodsPTX resistance-related genes were screened by bioinformatics. CEBPD and VAMP3 expression in clinical TNBC samples was examined by immunohistochemistry. Three PTX-resistant TNBC cell lines (MDA-MB-231/PTX, MDA-MB-468/PTX and MDA-MB-453/PTX) were generated, and their drug resistance was analyzed. Autophagy of cells was analyzed by immunofluorescence staining. Interaction between CEBPD and VAMP3 promoter was identified by immunoprecipitation and luciferase assays. The extracellular expression of programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) in TNBC cells was detected. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from TNBC cells were isolated to examine their effects on CD8+ T cell exhaustion.ResultsCEBPD and VAMP3 were upregulated in chemo-resistant tissue samples and in PTX-resistant TNBC cells. The CEBPD downregulation enhanced PTX sensitivity of cells. However, further upregulation of VAMP3 in cells restored PTX resistance, which was likely due to the activation of autophagy, as the autophagy antagonist chloroquine enhanced PTX sensitivity of cells. CEBPD was found to bind to the VAMP3 promoter to activate its transcription. The CEBPD/VAMP3 axis also increased the PD-L1 expression in the conditioned medium of TNBC cells. The TNBC cell-derived EVs increased the exhaustion of co-cultured CD8+ T cells.ConclusionThis study provides novel evidence that CEBPD plays a key role in enhancing PTX resistance in TNBC cells across various subtypes through VAMP3-mediated autophagy activation. Additionally, the CEBPD/VAMP3 axis also increases extracellular PD-L1 level, delivered by cancer cell-derived EVs, to suppress CD8+ T cell-mediated anti-tumor immune response. These significant observations may provide new insights into the treatment of TNBC, suggesting CEBPD and VAMP3 as promising targets to overcome treatment resistance.

Abstract LB309: Influence of pathological pericytes on PDAC tumor progression and tumor microenvironment

Abstract Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the third leading cause of cancer death in men and women in the U.S., with a 5-year survival rate of 12 %. This poor prognosis is partly due to the aggressive nature of the disease, lack of early detection methods, its complex and dense tumor microenvironment (TME), and lack of effective treatment options. Within the PDAC TME, morphologically aberrant leaky vessels are responsible for hypoxia and impaired immune response, which likely reduces the efficacy of cancer therapies. We and others showed that pericyte coverage significantly correlates with vascular integrity/function and intratumoral hypoxia. Therefore, understanding perivascular heterogeneity and the unique contribution of each phenotype to the TME evolution is a critical step toward personalized treatment options for PDAC. Consequently, we hypothesize that correcting such undesirable phenotype via vascular normalization will alleviate the harsh TME and enhance the treatment efficacy. Our study revealed that tumor-associated pericytes across all PDAC tumor tissues exhibited ectopic αSMA expression up to 10 times higher than normal pericytes. This aberrant pericyte phenotype correlated with vascular leakiness, hypoxia, and vessel leakiness. Our attempt to elucidate the underlying mechanism of pericyte phenotype switching using an in-vitro culture system shows that pancreatic cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles are a potent inducer of αSMA expression in pericytes present mechanical abnormalities and immune-suppressive features. To further determine the pathological signature of tumor pericytes and identify potential target molecules toward vascular normalization, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). Pericytes were isolated from WT pancreas and KPC tumors at 15-20 weeks to obtain desired viable single-cell population suitable for 10x library preparation and Illumina sequencing.We isolated and barcode at least 5000 cells using the 10X genomics system. Sequencing libraries were prepared using the Chromium Single Cell 3ʹ reagent kit v3. They were sequenced until a sequencing depth of 100,000 reads per cell was achieved, and the data was analyzed using Cell Ranger and various other analytical tools (e.g., Seuret, Conos, ScMerge, singleR). We generated custom scripts from the single-cell data to answer the relevant questions. Sequences were demultiplexed based on barcodes and assigned unique molecular identifiers (UMIs). We visualized clusters using graphing methods, such as t-SNE plots and UMAP clustering. This approach helped identify groups of cells with unique and differential transcriptional landscapes and group them into cellular subtypes based on their gene expression profiles. In conclusion, our study indicates that tumor-associated pericytes undergo phenotype switching under the influence of pancreatic cancer cells, and these aberrant pericytes might contribute to non-optimal vascular integrity and function. Single-cell RNA sequencing helped understand the molecular signature of the pericyte subpopulation, providing a powerful tool to develop novel targeting strategies for vascular normalization. Future work includes exploring the vascular normalization approach by suppressing pericyte phenotype switching to enhance vascular function and chemo and immunotherapeutic efficacy. Citation Format: Vikneshwari Natarajan, Sangdeuk Ha, Jiha Kim. Influence of pathological pericytes on PDAC tumor progression and tumor microenvironment [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 2 (Late-Breaking, Clinical Trial, and Invited Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(7_Suppl):Abstract nr LB309.

Abstract 4263: Prostate cancer cell-derived small extracellular vesicles regulate monocyte migration via STEAP4 and promote a monocyte transitional state

Abstract Our group has previously shown that prostate cancer (PrCa)-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are powerful cell communication mediators as they carry an array of proteins that have the ability to change recipient cell functions. Here, we describe a novel pathway of cancer cell-monocyte communication mediated by sEVs. Since sEVs carry cargoes that alter recipient cell phenotypes, we analyzed via proteomic analysis sEVs released from PC3 PrCa cells. Using CRISPR Cas9 methods, we downregulated IFIT3 (Interferon-induced proteins with tetratricopeptide repeats-3, member of the interferon-stimulated gene family) in PC3 PrCa cell (IFIT3KO). We then isolated sEVs from PC3 or IFIT3KO cells by using differential ultracentrifugation followed by iodixanol density gradient. Our proteomic analysis of IFIT3KO sEVs compared to PC3 sEVs shows that IFIT3 downregulation results in a significant upregulation of a metalloreductase, STEAP4 (six-transmembrane-epithelial antigen of the prostate 4), which is increased in PrCa cells and promotes PrCa cell proliferation and survival. STEAP4 is also known to promote an anti-inflammatory response in monocytes and macrophages. We then, investigated whether PrCa sEVs enriched in STEAP4 have a causal effect on monocyte functions and phenotype by using adhesion and migration assays as well as flow cytometry. Our results show that while all PrCa sEVs stimulate the adhesion of healthy donor or non-metastatic PrCa patient monocytes, only PrCa sEVs expressing STEAP4 increase their migration. In parallel, we provide evidence that all PrCa sEVs affect some of the M2 (CD163 or CD204) and M1 (CD80 or HLA DR) polarization markers analyzed in healthy donor monocytes. We show that there is a transitional state induced by PrCa sEVs in healthy donor monocytes, which occurs in a STEAP4-independent manner. This state mimics the non-metastatic PrCa patient monocyte phenotype. In conclusion, we describe a unique pathway whereby PrCa cell sEVs expressing STEAP4 promote monocyte migration with partial changes to their polarization. Funding: This study was supported by NCI P01-CA140043, R01-CA224769, Pennsylvania DOH - Cure award to L.R.L Citation Format: Nicole M. Naranjo, Anna Testa, Santosh K. Yadav, Ulhas P. Naik, Lei Yu, William K. Kelly, Qin Liu, Jianyi Ding, Hushan Yang, Hsin Yao Tang, Cecilia E. Verrillo, Craig D. Hooper, Lucia R. Languino. Prostate cancer cell-derived small extracellular vesicles regulate monocyte migration via STEAP4 and promote a monocyte transitional state [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(6_Suppl):Abstract nr 4263.

Abstract 483: Unraveling the impact of cancer cell derived membrane and cytosolic proteins using synthetic small extracellular vesicles

Abstract Background: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are couriers in cell-cell communication. Evidence suggests that EV biology, from cargo packing, biodistribution, to cell uptake is a non-random and well-orchestrated process. Substantial efforts have been devoted to studying the pathological roles and therapeutic potential of EVs. It is speculated that surface properties, such as membrane proteins, mediate the interaction between EVs and recipient cells, while the enclosed “messages” exert downstream effects. This concept is exemplified in cancer metastasis, where cancer cell-derived EVs were shown to establish pre-metastatic niches and guide cancer organotropism. We propose selectively loading cancer cell membrane and cytosolic proteins into synthetic vesicles (SVs) like liposomes. This approach allows for the isolated study of individual factors, in contrast to the complexity of naturally occurring EVs. Methods: Cellular membrane and cytosolic proteins were extracted separately from a cancer cell line (MP41) (Mem-PERTM Plus kit). Empty-SV, Mem-SV (with membrane proteins), Cyto-SV (with cytosolic proteins), and Complete-SV (with both) were synthesized in a 3D-printed microfluidic chip and subsequently dialyzed (1000 KDa) overnight. The volume of protein buffer was controlled in all SV syntheses. EVs were isolated from the conditioned medium by ultrafiltration (Amicon) followed by ultracentrifugation. The size (Nanosight), zeta potential (ZetaView), and morphology (Transmission Electron Microscopy) of SVs and EVs were analyzed. Proteins incorporated into SVs were validated by stain-free gel, western blot, and CytoFLEX. SVs and EVs were stained by sp-DiIC18 fluorescent dye. The number of fluorescent particles was quantified (CytoFLEX) and controlled in cell uptake analysis on hepatocytes (IHH) and fibroblasts (BJ) (Incucyte). Results: All SVs were successfully synthesized with a mean size of ~100 nm. The zeta potential of both Mem-SV (-27.03 mV) and Complete-SV (-24.78 mV) is close to MP41 EVs (-26.01 mV) (P > 0.05) and are more negative than Empty-SV (-11.30 mV) and Cargo-SV (-13.38 mV) (P < 0.05). Total protein incorporation efficiency was estimated to be ~30%. The relative level of specific proteins (e.g. integrin av, TSG101) in Mem-SV and Cyto-SV matched the level in the raw membrane and cytosolic proteins by western blot. Integrin avb5 was detected on the surface of Mem-SV. Membrane and cytosolic protein incorporation increased the uptake efficiency of SVs compared to Empty-SVs, and the efficiency varied with cell type and protein content. Conclusion: In this study, we demonstrate that membrane and cytosolic proteins differentially impact the physical (zeta potential) and functional (cellular uptake) properties of SVs. Investigating these distinct roles could further our understanding of cancer EV biology, as well as advance drug delivery systems. Citation Format: Yunxi Chen, Rubén R. López, Thupten Tsering, Chaymaa Zouggari Ben El Khyat, Vahé Nerguizian, Julia V. Burnier. Unraveling the impact of cancer cell derived membrane and cytosolic proteins using synthetic small extracellular vesicles [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(6_Suppl):Abstract nr 483.

Kynurenine in IDO1high cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles promotes angiogenesis by inducing endothelial mitophagy in ovarian cancer

BackgroundMitophagy, a prominent cellular homeostasis process, has been implicated in modulating endothelial cell function. Emerging evidence suggests that extracellular vesicles (EVs) participate in intercellular communication, which could modulate tumor angiogenesis, a hallmark of ovarian cancer (OC) progression. However, the underlying mechanisms through how EVs regulate endothelial mitophagy associated with tumor angiogenesis during OC development remain obscure.MethodsThe effect of cancer cell-derived EVs on endothelial mitophagy and its correlation with tumor angiogenesis and OC development were explored by in vitro and in vivo experiments. Multi-omics integration analysis was employed to identify potential regulatory mechanisms of cancer cell-derived EVs on endothelial mitophagy, which is involved in tumor angiogenesis associated with OC development. These insights were then further corroborated through additional experiments. An orthotopic OC mouse model was constructed to assess the antiangiogenic and therapeutic potential of the Indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase-1 (IDO1) inhibitor.ResultsCancer cell-derived EVs promoted tumor angiogenesis via the activation of endothelial mitophagy, contributing to the growth and metastasis of OC. The aberrantly high expression of IDO1 mediated abnormal tryptophan metabolism in cancer cells and promoted the secretion of l-kynurenine (L-kyn)-enriched EVs, with associated high levels of L-kyn in EVs isolated from both the tumor tissues and patient plasma in OC. EVs derived from IDO1high ovarian cancer cells elevated nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD +) levels in endothelial cells via delivering L-kyn. Besides, IDO1high ovarian cancer cell-derived EVs upregulated sirt3 expression in endothelial cells by increasing acetylation modification. These findings are crucial for promoting endothelial mitophagy correlated with tumor angiogenesis. Notably, both endothelial mitophagy and tumor angiogenesis could be suppressed by the IDO1 inhibitor in the orthotopic OC mouse model.ConclusionsTogether, our findings unveil a mechanism of mitophagy in OC angiogenesis and indicate the clinical relevance of EV enriched L-kyn as a potential biomarker for tumorigenesis and progression. Additionally, IDO1 inhibitors might become an alternative option for OC adjuvant therapy.Graphical

Lung Fibroblasts Take up Breast Cancer Cell-derived Extracellular Vesicles Partially Through MEK2-dependent Macropinocytosis.

Through a phenotypic screen, we found that MEK inhibitor Trametinib suppressed EV uptake and macropinocytosis in lung fibroblasts, and that EV uptake is mediated by MEK2 in these cells. Our results suggest that MEK2 inhibition could serve as a strategy to block cancer EV uptake by lung fibroblasts.

Angiogenesis is promoted by hypoxic cervical carcinoma-derived extracellular vesicles depending on the endothelial cell environment

IntroductionCancer needs perfusion for its growth and metastasis. Cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles (CA-EVs) alter the tumor microenvironment (TME), potentially promoting angiogenesis. We hypothesize that conditions in the tumor, e.g., hypoxia, and in the target cells of the TME, e.g., nutrient deprivation or extracellular matrix, can affect the angiogenic potential of CA-EVs, which would contribute to explaining the regulation of tumor vascularization and its influence on cancer growth and metastasis. MethodsCA-EVs were isolated and characterized from cervical carcinoma cell lines HeLa and SiHa cultured under normoxia and hypoxia, and their angiogenic potential was evaluated in vitro in three endothelial cells (ECs) lines and aortic rings, cultured in basal (growth factor-reduced) or complete medium. ResultsHypoxia increased EV production 10–100 times and protein content 2–4 times compared to normoxic CA-EVs. HeLa-EVs contained six times more RNA than SiHa-EVs, and this concentration was not affected by hypoxia. Treatment with CA-EVs increased tube formation and sprouting in ECs and aortic rings cultured in basal medium and long-term stabilized the stablished vascular networks formed by ECs cultured in complete medium. ConclusionHypoxia differentially affects CA-EVs in a cell line-dependent manner. The cellular environment (nutrient availability and extracellular matrix scaffold) influences the effect of CA-EV on the angiogenic potential of ECs.

Dielectrophoretic Capture of Cancer-Derived Small-Extracellular-Vesicle-Bound Janus Nanoparticles via Lectin-Glycan Interaction.

Glycosylation is closely related to cellular metabolism and disease progression. In particular, glycan levels in cancer cells and tissues increase during cancer progression. This upregulation of glycosylation in cancer cells may provide a basis for the development of new biomarkers for the targeting and diagnosis of specific cancers. Here, they developed a detection technology for pancreatic cancer cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (PC-sEVs) based on lectin-glycan interactions. Lectins specific for sialic acids are conjugated to Janus nanoparticles to induce interactions with PC-sEVs in a dielectrophoretic (DEP) system. PC-sEVs are selectively bound to the lectin-conjugated Janus nanoparticles (lectin-JNPs) with an affinity comparable to that of conventionally used carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA19-9) antibodies. Furthermore, sEVs-bound Lectin-JNPs (sEVs-Lec-JNPs) are manipulated between two electrodes to which an AC signal is applied for DEP capture. In addition, the proposed DEP system can be used to trap the sEVs-Lec-JNP on the electrodes. Their results, which are confirmed by lectin-JNPs using the proposed DEP system followed by target gene analysis, provide a basis for the development of a new early diagnostic marker based on the glycan characteristics of PC-sEVs. In turn, these novel detection methods could overcome the shortcomings of commercially available pancreatic cancer detection techniques.

Esophageal cancer cell-derived small extracellular vesicles decrease circulating Tfh/Tfr via sEV-PDL1 to promote immunosuppression.

Esophageal cancer (EC) is a deadly malignancy. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) with programmed death ligand 1 (sEV-PDL1) induce immune escape to promote tumor progression. Furthermore, the imbalance between circulating follicular helper T (Tfh) and circulating follicular regulatory T (Tfr) cells is related to the progression of many malignant tumors. However, the role of the EC-derived sEV-PDL1 in circulating Tfh/Tfr is unknown. Circulating Tfh and Tfr cells were detected by flow cytometry. sEVs were isolated through differential centrifugation and cultured for cell expansion assays. Naïve CD4+ T cells were isolated, stimulated, and cultured with sEVs to evaluate the frequencies, phenotypes, and functions of Tfh and Tfr cells. The proportion of circulating Tfh in patients with EC was lower than that in healthy donors (HDs), whereas that of circulating Tfr was higher. The EC group showed significantly lower circulating Tfh/Tfr and a higher level of sEV-PDL1 than HDs. Notably, sEV-PDL1 was negatively correlated with circulating Tfh/Tfr in the EC group. In vitro assays, sEV-PDL1 inhibited Tfh expansion, enhanced the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4+ (CTLA4+) Tfh cell percentage, decreased the levels of interleukin (IL)-21 and interferon-γ, and increased IL-10. sEV-PDL1 promoted the expansion and immunosuppressive functions of circulating Tfr; the increased percentages of CTLA4+ Tfr and inducible T cell co-stimulator+ Tfr were accompanied with high IL-10. However, applying an anti-PDL1 antibody significantly reversed this. Our results suggest a novel mechanism of sEV-PDL1-mediated immunosuppression in EC. Inhibiting sEV-PDL1 to restore circulating Tfh/Tfr balance provides a novel therapeutic approach for EC.

Unravelling the Role of Cancer Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Muscle Atrophy, Lipolysis, and Cancer-Associated Cachexia.

Cancer-associated cachexia is a metabolic syndrome that causes significant reduction in whole-body weight due to excessive loss of muscle mass accompanied by loss of fat mass. Reduced food intake and several metabolic abnormalities, such as increased energy expenditure, excessive catabolism, and inflammation, are known to drive cachexia. It is well documented that cancer cells secrete EVs in abundance which can be easily taken up by the recipient cell. The cargo biomolecules carried by the EVs have the potential to alter the signalling pathways and function of the recipient cells. EV cargo includes proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites. Tumour-secreted EVs have been found to alter the metabolic and biological functions of adipose and muscle tissue, which aids in the development of the cachexia phenotype. To date, no medical intervention or FDA-approved drug exists that can completely reverse cachexia. Therefore, understanding how cancer-derived EVs contribute to the onset and progression of cancer-associated cachexia may help with the identification of new biomarkers as well as provide access to novel treatment alternatives. The goal of this review article is to discuss the most recent research on cancer-derived EVs and their function in cellular crosstalk that promotes catabolism in muscle and adipose tissue during cancer-induced cachexia.

In Situ Simultaneous Detection of Surface Protein and microRNA in Clustered Extracellular Vesicles from Cancer Cell Lines Using Flow Cytometry.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are becoming increasingly important in liquid biopsy for cancer because they contain multiple biomarkers, including proteins and RNAs, and circulate throughout the body. Cancer cell-derived EVs are highly heterogeneous, and multiplexed biomarker detection techniques are required to improve the accuracy of diagnosis. In addition, in situ EV biomarker detection increases the efficiency of the detection process because EVs are difficult to handle. In this study, in situ simultaneous detection of EV surface proteins, programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), and internal miRNA-21 (miR-21) analyzed by conventional flow cytometry was developed for a breast cancer liquid biopsy. However, the majority of EVs were not recognized by flow cytometry for biomarker detection because the size of EVs was below the detectable size range of the flow cytometer. To solve this problem, the formation of EV clusters was induced by 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE)-polyethylene glycol-DSPE during biomarker detection. Consequently, both PD-L1 and miR-21 detection signals from cancer cell-derived EVs were drastically increased, making them distinguishable from normal cell-derived EVs. The in situ simultaneous cancer biomarker detection from EV clusters analyzed by flow cytometry contributes to an increase in the sensitivity and accuracy of the EV-based liquid biopsy for cancer.

Probing Aberrantly Glycosylated Mucin 1 in Breast Cancer Extracellular Vesicles.

Aberrantly glycosylated mucin 1 is a critical prognostic biomarker in breast epithelial cancers. Hypoglycosylated mucin 1 coats the surface of the cancer cells, where O-glycans are predominantly linked via an N-acetylgalactosamine moiety (GalNAc). Cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) carry biomarkers from parent cancer cells to the recipient cells and, therefore, could potentially be leveraged for diagnostics and noninvasive disease monitoring. We devised a label-free approach for identifying glycoprotein mucin 1 overexpression on breast cancer EVs. While exploring a plethora of biochemical (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, flow cytometry, and SDS-PAGE) and label-free biophysical techniques (circular dichroism and infrared spectroscopy (IR)) along with multivariate analysis, we discovered that mucin 1 is significantly overexpressed in breast cancer EVs and aberrant glycosylation in mucin 1 could be critically addressed using IR and multivariate analysis targeting the GalNAc sugar. This approach emerges as a convenient and comprehensive method of distinguishing cancer EVs from normal samples and holds potential for nonintrusive breast cancer liquid biopsy screening.

Extracellular vesicle lipids in cancer immunoevasion

Recent studies have revealed that cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) modulate immunological responses. Lipids have diverse biological functions, and are known to promote tumor malignancy. However, the immunoevasive roles of EV lipids in cancer progression remain poorly understood. Nevertheless, the study of cancer cell-derived EV lipids holds great promise for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.

Exploration of Extracellular Vesicle Long Non-Coding RNAs in Serum of Patients with Cervical Cancer

Introduction: Cervical cancer (CC) is the fourth most common cancer type and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide. Its underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. Cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in cancer development and progression by delivering regulatory factors, including microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Methods: Here, we identified the EV lncRNA expression profiles associated with different developmental stages of CC using next-generation sequencing. EVs from the serum of patients with stages I–III CC and healthy donors were characterized using EV marker immunoblotting and transmission electron microscopy. Results: The EV concentration increases with progression of the disease. Most particles had a 100–250-nm diameter, and their sizes were similar in all groups. We identified many lncRNAs that were uniquely and differentially expressed (DE) in patients with different stages of CC. The pathway analysis results indicated that the upregulated DE EV lncRNAs abundant in stages I and II were associated with cell proliferation and inflammation and cancer progression pathways, respectively. LINC00941, LINC01910, LINC02454, and DSG2-AS1 were highly expressed, suggesting poor overall survival of CC patients. Interestingly, DSG2-AS1 was associated with the human papillomavirus infection pathway through AKT3, DLG1, and COL6A2 genes. Conclusion: This is the first study that reports the levels of EVs and their lncRNA contents change during cancer development, demonstrating the existence of a unique vesicle-mediated cell-to-cell communication network underlying cancer progression.

Cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles drive pre-metastatic niche formation of lymph node via IFNGR1/JAK1/STAT1-activated-PD-L1 expression on FRCs in head and neck cancer

ObjectiveThe aim of this study is to evaluate the role of FRCs regulated by cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles (CEVs) played in pre-metastatic niche (PMN) formation of lymph node (LN). Materials and methodsThe FRCs in sixty fresh cervical LNs from 20 patients were evaluated by flow cytometric analysis. Cells in LN with or without metastasis were analyzed by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). CEVs were isolated from the culture supernatant of primarily cultured cancer cells and cocultured with FRCs. Mass Spectrometry was used to identify LN metastasis related protein in CEVs. The activation of IFNGR1/JAK1/STAT1-activated-PD-L1 pathway in FRCs was detected by western blotting. FRCs were co-cultured with CD8+ T lymphocytes to confirm the cytotoxicity assay of FRCs. ResultsThe proportion of fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) was significantly higher in micro-metastatic LN in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients (HNSCC, p < 0.05) and scRNA-seq analysis further showed a high focus of extracellular vesicles-related pathway on FRCs in LN with metastasis (p < 0.05). Interferon gamma receptor 1 (IFNGR1) in CEVs can be engulfed by FRCs and promote PD-L1 expression on FRCs via JAK1-STAT1 pathway, resulting in an increased CD8+ T cell exhaustion. ConclusionIFNGR1, originated from cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles, promote PD-L1 expression on FRCs and subsequent CD8+ T cell exhaustion via JAK1-STAT1 activation, which facilitate pre-metastatic niche formation and tumor metastasis in sentinel lymph node in HNSCC.

Development of a Novel DNA Aptamer Targeting Colorectal Cancer Cell-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles as a Potential Diagnostic and Therapeutic Agent.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) as the second leading cause of global cancer deaths poses critical challenges in clinical settings. Cancer-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which are secreted by cancer cells, have been shown to mediate tumor development, invasion, and even metastasis, and have thus received increasing attention for the development of cancer diagnostic or therapeutic platforms. In the present study, w e have developed the sEV-targeted systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (E-SELEX) method to generate a high-quality aptamer (CCE-10F) that recognizes and binds to CRC-derived sEVs. Via an in-depth investigation, w e confirmed that this novel aptamer possesses high affinity (Kd = 3.41nM) for CRC-derived sEVs and exhibits a wide linear range (2.0 × 104 - 1.0 × 106 particles/μL) with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.0 × 103 particles/μL. Furthermore, the aptamer discriminates CRC cell-derived sEVs from those derived from normal cell, human serum, and other cancer cells, showing high specificity for CRC cell-derived sEVs and significantly suppresses the critical processes of metastasis, including cellular migration, invasion, and angiogenesis, which are originally induced by sEVs themselves. These findings are highly encouraging for the potential use of the aptamer in sEV-based diagnostic and therapeutic applications. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The prognostic implications of macrophage polarization in advanced and therapy-resistant prostate cancer

Abstract Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are components of the spatial microenvironment of many solid neoplasms. In prostate cancer (PCa), TAMs are linked to a poor prognosis. PCa is characterized by enhanced tumor lipid production and TAM lipid accumulation. However, the interplay between lipid-producing tumor cells and TAM lipid uptake has yet to be determined. Human prostate tumor tissue microarrays were evaluated for TAM (CD68+) and M2/M1 (CD206+/CD86+) levels correlated with tumor aggressiveness by multiplex immunohistochemistry. Standard PCa cells 22rv1, PC3 and DU145 were used to develop chemoresistant sublines which were validated using dose-response viability assays and immunoblotting for resistance-associated markers and lipid-producing enzymes. Cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were isolated from cell culture supernatants by size exclusion chromatography and were incubated with U937-derived macrophages, followed by flow cytometric evaluation of M1 and M2 markers. Proteomic evaluation of human prostate tumors indicates that CD68+ TAMs correlate with aggressive, metastatic PCa. Furthermore, a higher M2-to-M1 ratio also correlates with metastatic disease compared to normal or localized tumors. Chemoresistant PCa cells exhibited an enhanced lipogenic phenotype compared to naive cells and the over-production of lipids was linked to EV-mediated reprogramming of macrophages toward an M2-like phenotype. These findings indicate that alternative activation of macrophages is linked to aggressive, therapy resistant PCa. Moreover, our data suggest that tumor lipid metabolism may influence tumor-associated macrophage phenotype and function through EV-mediated intercellular signaling. Puerto Rico Science Research and Technology Trust