Canada Prairie Spring Research Articles

Use of ultrasound to discern differences in Asian noodles prepared across wheat classes and between varieties

Diep, S., Daugelaite, D., Strybulevych, A., Scanlon, M., Page, J. and Hatcher, D. 2014. Use of ultrasound to discern differences in Asian noodles prepared across wheat classes and between varieties. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 525-534. Nine wheat varieties, five Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) and four Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR), grown at the same locations and composited by variety, were milled to yield 65% extraction flours, which were used to form yellow alkaline raw and cooked noodles. The CWRS flours were ~2% higher in protein content than the CPSR varieties, with varieties within each class exhibiting a wide range in dough strength as determined by Farinograph dough development time and stability. The ultrasonic velocity and attenuation of the raw noodles were measured at 40 kHz in disk-shaped samples, enabling the longitudinal storage modulus, loss modulus and tan ▵ to be determined. Significant differences (P=0.05) between classes and within a class were found to exist for all ultrasonic paramet...

A Canadian Ethanol Feedstock Study to Benchmark the Relative Performance of Triticale: I. Agronomics

A need has been identified for alternative crop(s) with high grain yield, low grain protein concentration, and high starch for the ethanol industry. The objective of this study was to benchmark the relative performance of triticale (×Triticosecale ssp.) to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) classes currently utilized for ethanol production. Sixteen cultivars—three triticale, four Canada prairie spring (CPS) wheat, three Canada western soft white spring wheat (CWSWS), two Canada western red spring (CWRS) wheat, and four Canada western general purpose (CWGP) candidate cultivars—were grown at 36 locations across western Canada from 2006 to 2009. The performance of these cereal classes can generally be summarized as triticale = Hoffman (CWGP) = CWSWS > CPS white > CPS red > CWRS for most variables. The triticale and white wheats produced 12 and 13% more grain, respectively, than the hard red spring wheats. Among the triticales, AC Ultima’s and Pronghorn’s yield potential were most notable because they exceeded the CWRS cultivars AC Barrie and AC Superb by an average of 32% and the CPS red cultivars 5700PR and AC Crystal by 18%. The triticales and Hoffman matured later than most other cultivars. Pronghorn consistently displayed low levels of fusarium head blight (FHB), Septoria nodorum blotch, and powdery mildew, but elevated ergot levels were observed for all triticales. We conclude that triticale would be superior to CPS and CWRS wheat and similar to CWSWS in many agronomic traits desired by ethanol fermentation plants and is superior for biomass production.

A Canadian Ethanol Feedstock Study to Benchmark the Relative Performance of Triticale: II. Grain Quality and Ethanol Production

Cereal grain ethanol production may need to supplement biomass ethanol production to meet the increasing long‐term demand for ethanol. A study was initiated to benchmark the relative performance of triticale (×Triticosecale ssp.) to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) classes utilized for ethanol production. Ten cultivars: three triticale, two Canada prairie spring (CPS) wheat, three Canada western soft white spring (CWSWS) wheat, one Canada western red spring (CWRS) wheat, and one Canada western general purpose (CWGP) wheat cultivars were grown at 45 locations across Canada from 2006 to 2009. The locations were subgrouped by agroecological zone for western Canada, by province for Ontario and Quebec, and Charlottetown, PEI, for the Maritimes. The greatest grain yield was usually observed for Hoffman (red spring wheat) followed by triticale cultivars and CWSWS cultivars. Ethanol yield varied by region as a reflection of grain yield, and differences among cultivars generally were: triticale (excluding Tyndal) = Hoffman = CWSWS > CPS > CWRS. Ethanol concentration was least for Tyndal triticale and AC Superb CWRS. Stability assessments indicated that Pronghorn and AC Ultima triticales and Bhishaj CWSWS wheat provide consistent and high ethanol yields. The other CWSWS cultivars, AC Sadash and AC Andrew, had similarly high ethanol yields but were variable, indicating that utilization outside the Parkland and Western Prairies agroecological zones could pose greater risk for ethanol plants over Pronghorn and AC Ultima. Ethanol fermentation plants could therefore increase efficiency by replacing CPS wheat feedstocks with select triticales and potentially improve the consistency of production by using select triticales in regions where CWSWS wheats are less stable.

Phenotypic Effects of the Flowering Gene Complex in Canadian Spring Wheat Germplasm

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) has inherent genetic potential to synchronize its flowering and maturity to a broad growing period and is therefore one of the most widely adapted and grown food crops. Vernalization and photoperiod response genes are of primary importance to this adaptability. We screened 102 Canadian spring wheat cultivars and/or lines, developed between 1885 and 2008, from the Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS), Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR), and Canada Western Soft White Spring (CWSWS) classes and studied their phenotypic response both in the field and the greenhouse. Almost all the hard red cultivars possessed the Vrn‐A1a gene either alone or in combination with the dominant Vrn‐B1 while 74% of the higher yielding soft white lines possessed the Vrn‐B1 gene alone or in combination with other Vrn genes. The Vrn‐A1a alone or in combination with the Vrn‐B1 gene was the most potent gene conferring early maturity. Ppd‐D1a did not alter flowering and maturity in the hard red cultivars tested in the field but did in the greenhouse. Ppd‐D1a reduced days to flowering for soft white spring wheat but did not alter maturity. The photoperiod sensitive gene (Ppd‐D1b) is being replaced with the insensitive gene, Ppd‐D1a, in most modern Canadian germplasm, suggesting its adaptive advantages in the prairies. An overall analysis of the data for the hard red class revealed a declining trend of 0.04 d yr−1 in days to maturity in cultivars released from 1885 to 2008 and an increase of 8 kg ha−1 yr−1 in grain yield. The findings of this study may aid wheat breeders selecting parents with appropriate vernalization and photoperiod gene complexes.

Stripe rust resistance among western Canadian spring wheat and triticale varieties

Randhawa, H., Puchalski, B. J., Frick, M., Goyal, A., Despins, T., Graf, R. J., Laroche, A. and Gaudet, D. A. 2012. Stripe rust resistance among western Canadian spring wheat and triticale varieties. Can. J. Plant Sci. 92: 713–722. Stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis Westend.) is an important pathogen of wheat in western Canada and worldwide. One hundred and four spring wheat and triticale varieties and cultivars were evaluated for resistance to stripe rust in nurseries at Lethbridge and Creston, BC, during 2009 and 2010. In the Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR) wheat class, newer varieties were more resistant compared with many of the older varieties. Among the white Canada Prairie Spring White (CPSW) wheats, Vista was moderately resistant, whereas Snowhite475 and Snowhite476 were susceptible. Little useful resistance was observed within the Canada Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS) class. Sixty percent of the Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheats, including the currently popular varieties Lillian, Harvest and Kane, were resistant. Susceptible CWRS varieties that are extensively seeded in western Canada include AC Barrie, Superb and McKenzie, but also include the recently registered CDC Kernen and Vesper. The varieties were tested for the presence of the stripe rust genes Yr10, Yr17, Yr18 and Yr36 using molecular markers. Much of the stripe rust resistance, particularly in the CWRS, Canada Western Extra Strong (CWES), and CPSR wheat classes was attributed to the presence of adult plant resistance gene Yr18. Yr17 and Yr36 were also detected among CWRS and CWES varieties. However, the absence of markers for known genes in several resistant varieties indicated that uncharacterized genes for stripe rust occur among hexaploid wheats. Durum wheat and triticale varieties were universally resistant with the absence of tested markers. Therefore, there appear to be numerous sources of stripe rust resistance, both characterized and uncharacterized, among western Canadian spring wheat and triticale varieties.

Developing standardized methods for breeding preharvest sprouting resistant wheat, challenges and successes in Canadian wheat

Preharvest sprouting (PHS) in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (T. turgidum L. var durum) causes significant economic losses due to a reduction in grain yield, grain functionality and viability of seed for planting. Average annual estimated losses in Canada are about $100 million. Genetic resistance to PHS reduces these losses. Development of PHS resistant cultivars is complicated by the effects of factors under genetic control, such as spike morphology, seed dormancy, environment, and kernel diseases. Resistance to PHS has been a breeding priority since the late 1960s. Development of RL4137, which is the primary source of PHS resistance in the Canada Western Red Spring market class, has led to cultivar improvements. A white-seeded derivative of RL4137 is the primary source of PHS in the Canada Prairie Spring White and Canada Western Hard White Spring wheat market classes. Procedures to select for PHS resistance vary among breeding programs, market classes and by degree of inbreeding. Methods include artificial sprouting of intact spikes, germination tests, natural weathering in field trials, artificial weathering trials, and indirect assessment of sprouting by measuring Hagberg falling number. Although many genetic loci have been attributed to preharvest sprouting resistance, application of molecular markers is currently limited due to the complex inheritance of the trait. In Canada, cultivars are characterized for their relative level of PHS resistance and the information is made available to producers.

Chemical characteristics, feed processing quality, growth performance and energy digestibility among wheat classes in pelleted diets fed to weaned pigs

Among wheat classes based on end use, the nutritional quality of wheat for pigs is expected to vary. Therefore, Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR), Canada Prairie Spring White (CPSW), Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD), Canada Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS) and Canada Western Red Winter (CWRW) wheat are separated out from Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat, which is the standard wheat for bread also known as hard red spring wheat. Two cultivars from these six wheat classes were characterised for their physico-chemical, feed milling properties and nutritional value for young, growing pigs. Growth and energy digestibility were studied for 3 wk with weaned pigs (12.8 ± 1.2 kg initial body weight) fed diets containing 650 g/kg wheat [14.6 MJ digestible energy (DE)/kg; 14.2 g digestible lysine/MJ DE]. Wheat crude protein (on dry matter basis) ranged from 124 to 174 g/kg among classes: 127–165 g for CPSW and CPSR, and 165–170 g/kg for CWAD. Total non-starch polysaccharides ranged from 90 to 115 g/kg among classes. For days 0–21, average daily gain, average daily feed intake and feed efficiency did not differ among wheat cultivars and classes (P>0.05). The coefficient of apparent total tract digestibility of energy in the diet was lowest (P<0.05) for CPSR (0.87), intermediate for CPSW, CWRS, CWHWS (0.87–0.88) and highest for CWAD and CWRW (0.89). Feed pelleting speed and pellet durability did not differ (P>0.05) among wheat diets but pelleting increased viscosity of diets (P<0.001). Principle component analysis revealed the negative impact of fibre components on feed efficiency. In conclusion, despite variations in chemical characteristics and DE content among wheat classes, young pigs fed all classes of wheat including CPSW, CPSR and CWAD may perform effectively.

Environmental Effects on the Relative Competitive Ability of Canola and Small-Grain Cereals in a Direct-Seeded System

Growing crops that exhibit a high level of competition with weeds increases opportunities to practice integrated weed management and reduce herbicide inputs. The recent development and market dominance of hybrid canola cultivars provides an opportunity to reassess the relative competitive ability of canola cultivars with small-grain cereals. Direct-seeded (no-till) experiments were conducted at five western Canada locations from 2006 to 2008 to compare the competitive ability of canola cultivars vs. small-grain cereals. The relative competitive ability of the species and cultivars was determined by assessing monocot and dicot weed biomass at different times throughout the growing season as well as oat (simulated weed) seed production. Under most conditions, but especially under warm and relatively dry environments, barley cultivars had the greatest relative competitive ability. Rye and triticale were also highly competitive species under most environmental conditions. Canada Prairie Spring Red wheat and Canada Western Red Spring wheat cultivars usually were the least competitive cereal crops, but there were exceptions in some environments. Canola hybrids were more competitive than open-pollinated canola cultivars. More importantly, under cool, low growing degree day conditions, canola hybrids were as competitive as barley, especially with dicot weeds. Under most conditions, hybrid canola growers on the Canadian Prairies are well advised to avoid the additional selection pressure inherent with a second in-crop herbicide application. Combining competitive cultivars of any species with optimal agronomic practices that facilitate crop health will enhance cropping system sustainability and allow growers to extend the life of their valuable herbicide tools.

INVESTIGATION OF EMPIRICAL AND FUNDAMENTAL SOBA NOODLE TEXTURE PARAMETERS PREPARED WITH TARTARY, GREEN TESTA AND COMMON BUCKWHEAT

ABSTRACTSoba noodles were prepared from brown tartary, green testa and two common buckwheat variety flours with Canada Western Red Spring flour (13.0% protein) and a lower protein (11.5%), but stronger dough strength, Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR) flour. Empirical, fundamental and the new Elastic Index (EI) parameter all demonstrated that the lower protein, stronger gluten CPSR variety 5701, yielded superior textural attributes. Tartary buckwheat flour noodle blends' empirical texture results (maximum cutting stress, resistance to compression and recovery) indicated they produced soba noodles with superior texture than the other buckwheat flours because of the lower level of dietary fiber, elevated starch content and lower cooking water uptake. Fundamental tests, such as stress relaxation percent at 20 s, extent of relaxation (K2), loading work and unloading work of tartary buckwheat noodles showed significant differences from the other buckwheat noodles. Among soba noodles, tartary buckwheat noodles had significantly greater (P &lt; 0.05) elastic‐like properties (higher K2 and EI). The EI parameter was significantly correlated (P &lt; 0.005) with all empirical and fundamental rheological parameters.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSWhereas noodle manufacturers prefer local sensory panels to evaluate the texture characteristics of new noodle products, such evaluations provide little insight into the underlying reasons for the panelist preferences. Traditional empirical mechanical tests – maximum cutting stress, recovery and resistance to compression – have not proven to offer the level of discernment required by the industry. Fundamental mechanical properties offer the ability to provide improved discrimination, as well as an understanding of the role of the biochemical components in addressing the noodle's texture.

Characterization of the Influence of Moisture Content on the Morphological Features of Single Wheat Kernels Using Machine Vision

The objective of this study was to quantify changes in morphological features of kernels of western Canadian wheat classes caused by moisture increase using a machine vision system. One hundred single wheat kernels for each of eight western Canadian wheat classes were successively conditioned from 12% to 20% (wet basis) moisture contents using potassium hydroxide (KOH) concentrations which regulated relative humidity. A digital camera of 7.4 7.4-m pixel resolution with an inter-line transfer charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor was used to acquire images of single kernels. A machine vision algorithm developed at the Canadian Wheat Board Centre for Grain Storage Research, University of Manitoba, was implemented to extract seven morphological features (area, perimeter, major axis length, minor axis length, maximum radius, minimum radius, and mean radius) from the wheat kernel images. All the seven features of Canada Western Red Spring, Canada Western Amber Durum, Canada Prairie Spring White, Canada Prairie Spring Red, Canada Western Extra Strong, Canada Western Red Winter, Canada Western Hard White Spring, and Canada Western Soft White Spring wheat kernels were significantly (a = 0.05) different as the moisture content increased from 12% to 20%. All seven features showed a linearly increasing trend with an increase in moisture content.

Measurement of structural carbohydrates, lignins, and micro-components of straw and shives: Effects of extractives, particle size and crop species

The effects of extractives, particle size, and crop species on the contents of structural carbohydrates, lignins, and micro-components in Canada Prairie Spring (CPS) wheat, durum wheat, barley, oat, and triticale straw, as well as flax shives, were determined. Extraction for 24 h in water followed by 7 h in ethyl alcohol (EtOH) yielded 20.2% extractives in triticale straw. Acid insoluble lignin decreased from 17.6% in native triticale straw to 13.6% in 24 h water + 7 h EtOH extracted triticale straw. The sample particle size influenced the values of glucan, xylan, acid insoluble lignin, ash, and extractives. Glucan, xylan, and acid insoluble lignin levels increased with increasing particle size. Protein, ash, and extractive levels decreased with increasing particle size. For flax shives, glucan, xylan, and acid insoluble lignin levels increased with increasing particle size from 19.1% to 33.2%, from 6.7% to 18.8%, and from 17.4% to 25.7%, respectively. The protein, ash, and extractive levels in flax shives decreased with increasing particle size from 6.5% to 1.9%, from 27.7% to 0.9%, and from 15.0% to 3.8%, respectively. Total glycans, lignin and extractive levels for the various straws, from the medium particle sized fraction, were 56.6–63.9, 14.7–19.4, and 6.8–20.2%, respectively. Total glycans, lignin, and extractives levels from the medium particle sized flax shives were 51.8, 25.8, and 6.46%, respectively. The composition of the medium particle size fraction reflected the composition of the corresponding original sample.

Extraction and fractionation of alkylresorcinols from triticale bran by two-step supercritical carbon dioxide

Bran from triticale cultivars Ultima and Pronghorn and Canadian Prairie Spring (CPS) wheat were fractionated using a two-step sequential supercritical carbon dioxide (SC–CO 2) extraction technique with and without ethanol to selectively extract and enrich high-value alkylresorcinols (ARs). Pure SC–CO 2 (70 °C; flow rate 25 g/min; pressure 35 MPa), was used for the first extraction step. The non-polar lipids yield ranged from 3.08 to 3.26 g/100 g and they were composed mainly of C18:2 (33–41 g/100 g), C18:1 (15–21 g/100 g), C16:0 (15–19 g/100 g), and C18:3 (4–5 g/100 g) fatty acids. The second extraction step, performed on the bran remaining after the first extraction, was carried out with SC–CO 2 plus 0.5 mL/min ethanol (70 °C; flow rate 5 g/min; pressure 35 MPa). The resulting total polar lipid yield of bran samples ranged between 0.62 and 0.86 g/100 g and the main compounds present in the polar lipids were ARs. The total AR contents of triticale cv Ultima, wheat, and triticale cv Pronghorn were 70, 68 and 36 mg/100 g, respectively. Saturated and unsaturated AR homologues of C15:0, C17:0, C19:0, C19:1, C21:0, C21:1, C23:0 and C25:0 were detected in all samples. Over 98% of the triticale ARs and over 95% of the wheat ARs were extracted under the SC–CO 2 conditions used.

The influence of moisture regime, N management, and cultivar on the agronomic performance and yield stability of soft white spring wheat

Field studies were conducted for 4 yr (2000–2003) in southern Alberta to determine the agronomic suitability and yield stability of soft white spring wheat across an array of moisture and fertility regimes. Two soft white spring wheat cultivars (AC Reed and AC Nanda) with contrasting maturity and quality profiles were compared to nine varieties representing the Canada Prairie Spring White, Canada Prairie Spring Red, and Canada Western Extra Strong wheat classes. The cultivars were managed with five varying rates of mid-row banded ammonium nitrate 0, 19, 38, 57, and 76 kg N ha-1. AC Reed matured earlier than most cultivars except AC Vista, and had the highest average yield. Yield stability analyses showed that AC Reed was well adapted to all environments but AC Nanda was less stable. AC Vista, AC Crystal, and AC Karma had average to good stability, but produced less grain than both AC Reed and AC Nanda. For non-irrigated production, yield was generally optimized at the mid-row banded rate 38 kg N ha-1 of ammonium nitrate. Response to N varied at the irrigated sites, but sites with lower initial soil NO3-N levels were responsive through the 76 kg N ha-1 rate. The soft white spring wheat class responded similarly to N in all moisture regimes, but whole-grain protein accumulation was not always lowest in the soft white spring wheat class. This study indicates that long-term sustainable production of soft white spring wheat in semi-arid, non-irrigated environments is possible, and would be most successful if cultivars were selected with yield stability, maturity and protein characteristics similar to AC Reed. Key words: Dry land production, fertility, soft white spring wheat, Triticum aestivum, yield stability, moisture regime

Feasibility of near-infrared hyperspectral imaging to differentiate Canadian wheat classes

Differentiation of wheat classes is one of the important challenges to the Canadian grain industry. Even though some wheat classes may look similar, their chemical composition and consequently the end-product quality can vary significantly. Visual differentiation of wheat classes suffers from disadvantages such as inconsistency, low throughput, and labour intensiveness. A near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging system was used to develop classification models to differentiate wheat classes grown in western Canada. Wheat bulk samples were scanned in the wavelength region of 960–1700 nm at 10 nm intervals using an InGaAs NIR camera. Seventy-five relative reflectance intensities were extracted from the scanned images and used for the differentiation of wheat classes using a statistical classifier and an artificial neural network (ANN) classifier. Classification accuracies were 100% in classifying Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR), Canada Western Red Winter (CWRW), and Canada Western Soft White Spring (CWSWS) wheat classes and >94% for the other wheat classes (Canada Western Extra Strong (CWES), Canada Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS), Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS), Canada Prairie Spring White (CPSW) and Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD)) using Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) with a leave-one-out cross-validation method. In Quadratic Discriminant Analysis (QDA) with a leave-one-out cross-validation method, the classification accuracies were >86% for all wheat classes. The overall classification accuracies of 60% training–30% testing–10% validation (referred to as 60-30-10) and 70% training–20% testing–10% validation (referred to as 70-20-10) ANN models were above 90% for independent validation sets using three-layer standard and Wardnet back-propagation neural network architectures.

Wheat Class Identification Using Thermal Imaging

Wheat classes and varieties are determined by trained professionals in the laboratory. Several approaches have been made using machine vision technology for nondestructive and online identification of wheat classes, but the performance has been poor and inconsistent. An infrared thermal imaging system was developed to identify eight western Canadian wheat classes. Samples of 20 g each of wheat at 14% moisture content (wet basis) spread in a 100 × 100 mm monolayer were heated by a plate heater (maintained at 90 °C) placed at a distance of 10 mm from the grain layer. The surface temperatures of the top surface of the grain bulk were imaged before heating, after heating for 180 s, and after cooling for 30 s using an infrared thermal camera (n = 100). Temperature rise (after heating) and drop (after cooling) were significantly different for wheat classes (α = 0.05). The temperature rise ranged from 14.94 (Canada Western Red Spring) to 17.80 °C (Canada Prairie Spring Red), and the drop ranged from 3.67 (Canada Western Extra Strong) to 4.42 °C (Canada Prairie Spring Red) after heating for 180 s and cooling for 30 s, respectively. The rate of heating and cooling was negatively correlated with protein content of wheat (r = −0.63 for heating, r = −0.65 for cooling) and true density (r = −0.67 for heating, r = −0.71 for cooling), and positively correlated with grain hardness (r = +0.41 for heating, r = +0.53 for cooling). Overall classification accuracies of an eight-class model, red-class model (four classes), white-class model (four classes), and pairwise (two-class model) comparisons using a quadratic discriminant method were 76%, 87%, 79%, and 95%, and 64%, 87%, 77%, and 91% using bootstrap and leave-one-out validation methods, respectively. There were several misclassifications in the four and eight-class models. Thermal imaging approach may have potential to develop classification methods for two classes, which are similar and difficult to distinguish by visual inspection; however, the effect of growing season, defects, and kernel size must be considered while developing such methods. The temperature rise after heating and drop after cooling were tested for Canada Western Red Spring wheat at three moisture levels (11%, 14%, and 17% wet basis; n = 20). There were no significant differences (α = 0.05) in the mean temperature rise and temperature drop between 11%, 14%, and 17% moisture samples.

Genotypic and environmental variation in grain, flour, dough and bread-making characteristics of Western Canadian Spring Wheat

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain, flour, dough and bread quality characteristics are strongly influencedby growing-season weather conditions. Understanding the impact of genotype, environment, and their interactions on Canadian wheat quality is important for Canada to maintain its high standard for delivery of consistent quality wheat to domestic and international customers. The effects of genotype, environment and genotype by environment (G × E) interaction on numerous grain, flour, dough and bread-making characteristics were assessed. The Canadian Western Red Spring (CWRS) cultivars were AC Barrie, Superb, AC Elsa, and Neepawa; the Canadian Prairie Spring (CPS-white) cultivar was AC Vista; and the Canadian Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS) cultivar was Snowbird. These genotypes were grown at five locations across the Canadian prairies in 2 yr to provide a total of 7 site-years of milling quality wheat for analysis. Genotype, environment and their interactions had significant effects on most parameters tested. The relative magnitude of the environmental contribution to wheat quality variance, depending on the trait, was considerably larger (14 to 89%) than the variance contribution of either genotype (0 to 33%) or G × E interaction (0 to 17%). The greatest environmental contribution to total variance (83%) was, on average, for grain traits including yield. Genotypic contribution to variation was greatest (~15%) for flour characteristics. The G × E interaction contributed relatively little to total variance and was comparable for flour, dough and bread properties (~6.5% on average). This large difference in variance between environmental and genotypic influences clearly demonstrates the importance of growing-season weather impacts on yield and quality for adapted bread wheat genotypes and strategies to mitigate these effects are discussed. Key words: Wheat, bread-making quality, Canadian prairies, environment, genotype, genotype by environment

Wheat class identification using monochrome images

Wheat class identification by bulk sample analysis using a machine vision method would be helpful for automation of grain handling, binning and shipping operations in grain elevators. A machine vision system with a monochrome camera was used to identify eight western Canadian wheat classes at four moisture levels (11%, 14%, 17% and 20% wet basis) by bulk sample analysis ( n=100 images for each group of samples). Grayscale images (1024×768 pixels) of the grain bulk were captured by the monochrome camera, and stored on a data acquisition system. Algorithms were developed to extract 32 textural features automatically from the grayscale images. The mean gray values of the western Canadian wheat classes ranged between 106 and 143, and it was the highest for Canada Prairie Spring Red and the lowest for Canada Western Extra Strong and Canada Western Red Winter. The mean gray values of the wheat samples were significantly higher at 17% moisture content and lower at 11% moisture content among the tested moisture levels ( α=0.05). The overall classification accuracies of a quadratic discriminant function were 93.8%, 92.5%, 92.0% and 94.4% when the wheat classes were at 11%, 14%, 17% and 20% moisture contents, respectively. Similarly, the accuracies of a linear discriminant function were 96.1%, 95.0%, 95.4% and 96.3% at 11%, 14%, 17% and 20% moisture contents, respectively. When the wheat classes were identified irrespective of moisture levels (images of the four moisture level grains in each class were mixed together), the accuracy was 89.8% and 85.4% for quadratic and linear discriminant functions, respectively. A monochrome image analysis system has the potential to use for online identification of classes in wheat handling facilities. However, further research is required to determine the performance of the developed method for impurities in bulk grain such as foreign material and dockage.

Quantifying carbon sequestration in a minimum tillage crop rotation study in semiarid southwestern Saskatchewan

Scientists and the agricultural community require methods of quantifying C sequestration in soils. This is important in assessing the impact of crop management practices on emission of greenhouse gases and for “C trading”. Using simulation models may be a more effective method of quantification as compared with in situ measurements. A 17-yr crop rotation experiment being conducted on a medium-textured Orthic Brown Chernozem at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, in which soil organic C (SOC) was being monitored periodically, was used to assess the effect on C sequestration of cropping frequency, wheat class, legume green manure (LGM), flexible cropping based on available water, and regrassing of crop land. Prior to the study, the experimental site had been cropped to fallow-wheat (F-W) for the previous 60 yr. Crop management in this experiment involved minimum tillage, snow trapping, and N + P fertilization based on soil tests. Three models [Century, the Introductory C Balance model (ICBM), and the Campbell model] were tested for their effectiveness in simulating SOC trends. Because growing season precipitation was average to above average, yields, and thus C inputs from residue, were also above average, and consequently SOC increased in most systems for the first 10 yr before reaching a new steady state. SOC gains (kg ha-1 yr-1) in the 0- to 15-cm depth in 17 yr were directly proportional to cropping frequency (F-W-W = 135, F-W-W-W = 332, and Cont W = 441); LGM-W-W gained SOC at a much higher rate than F-W-W (329 vs. 135 kg ha-1 yr-1 ); Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), although it yielded 26% less than Canada Prairie Spring (CPS) wheat, gained SOC at a higher rate than CPS wheat (135 vs. 0 kg ha-1 yr-1). Further, 2 yr of conventionally-tilled fallow in 17 yr (flexible system) markedly suppressed SOC gain by 46% compared with Cont W (441 vs. 236 kg ha-1 yr-1). There was a 282 kg ha-1 yr-1 gain in SOC under crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum L.) (CWG) but most of this gain occurred in the last 7 yr. Though having their inherent weaknesses, the ICBM and Campbell models performed equally well in simulating SOC trends (r2 = 0.55**), but Century was less effective (r2 = 0.21*), in part because of its limited ability to simulate yields. Because C input, and thus yield, is one of the main factors influencing SOC gains, and since measured yields are used in the ICBM and Campbell models, while simulated yields are used by Century, the ICBM and Campbell models have an advantage over the Century model in this comparison. Efficiencies of conversion of input C to SOC increased with cropping frequency, and were higher for LGM-W-W than for F-W-W, and for systems with CWRS wheat rather than CPS wheat. Efficiency of conversion was 8% for F-W-W, 15% for LGM-W-W and 21% for Cont W. Key words: ICBM model, Century model, Campbell model, C sequestration, legume green manure, regrassing

Influence of Alkaline Formulation on Oriental Noodle Color and Texture

ABSTRACTPatent (60% yield) and straight‐grade flours of Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) and Canada Prairie Spring White (CPSW) wheat were used to determine the influence of different ratios of alkaline salts, their concentration, and NaCl on the texture and color characteristics of the yellow alkaline noodles. Addition of 3% (w/w) salt to any formulation resulted in a significant increase in the amount of work required to process the raw noodles, while significantly lower work input was observed for noodles prepared using a 5% (w/w) 9:1 Na‐to‐K carbonate ratio without salt formula. Wheat class, extraction rate, and alkali formulation had a significant effect on raw noodle brightness with noodles prepared using 5% carbonate being brighter than the 1% carbonate noodles. Maximum cooked noodle thickness was achieved from all flours using a 1% 9:1 Na‐to‐K carbonate ratio, 3% salt formulation. The inclusion of 3% NaCl into the formula resulted in noodles significantly thicker than the corresponding salt‐free formula for all flours. Cooked noodle texture parameters evaluated were maximum cutting stress (MCS), resistance to compression (RTC), recovery (REC), and stress relaxation time. In all cases, the presence of 3% salt in the various formulations resulted in a decrease in each parameter relative to the corresponding salt‐free formulation. Desirable bite (MCS), chewiness (RTC, REC), and relaxation times were achieved with a 1% concentration of alkali salts, without NaCl, regardless of the Na‐to‐K carbonate ratio. Use of a 5% concentration of alkali salts resulted in a significant reduction in texture that was most pronounced for the 1:9 Na‐to‐K carbonate formulation.

Effect of fallow frequency, flexible rotations, legume green manure, and wheat class on the economics of wheat production in the Brown soil zone

Producers in the semiarid Brown soil zone of Saskatchewan have historically produced spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in fallow-based rotations because these cropping systems are profitable and risk efficient; however, their use has also been most damaging to soil quality. New wheat types and management methods have been developed that may offer wheat producers opportunities to enhance economic returns, while improving environmental sustainability. This study compares the economic merits of reducing fallow (F) frequency, using an annual legume green manure (LGM) crop as a summer fallow replacement, adopting a flex-cropping approach based on available soil water reserves (if water) or the need to control problem weeds (if weeds), and the production of Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat (W) versus the higher yielding Canada Prairie Spring (CPS) wheat class (HY). The results are based on 15 yr of data from seven crop rotations included in an ongoing experiment being conducted on an Orthic Brown Chernozem at the Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research Centre at Swift Current, Saskatchewan. The crop rotations included F-W-W, LGM-W-W, F-HY-HY, F-W-W-W, continuous W (Cont W), Cont W (if water), and Cont W (if weeds). Cropping systems were managed using conservation tillage practices. They were fertilized with recommended rates of N and P based on soil tests, and crop residue was maintained as tall as possible (usually &gt; 30 cm) to enhance snow trapping. The 1988–2002 study period was characterized by above normal growing season precipitation; thus, grain yields were also above average for this region. Results showed that producers will earn the highest net return with Cont W ($41 ha-1), despite this rotation having the highest production costs. Net returns ranked second highest for F-W-W-W, F-HYHY, and the flex-crop rotations (about $15 ha-1 less than Cont W), and ranked lowest for F-W-W and LGM-W-W (about $25 ha-1 less). However, since 1993, when the LGM was managed more effectively than in the first 6 yr, LGM-W-W was more profitable than F-W-W. On average, it was more profitable to produce CPS compared with CWRS wheat when the CPS/CWRS price ratio was greater than 0.8. Producers who are highly averse to risk would still choose cropping systems that included some summer fallow, while those with lower risk aversion would choose Cont W, but with all-risk crop insurance. In the absence of an all-risk crop insurance program, producers would typically choose Cont W (if water), F-W-W-W, or F-W-W. We concluded that area producers, who practice conservation tillage management and use tall stubble for snowtrapping, can enhance farm income by moving to more intensive cropping systems, and while doing so, they will foster improved environmental sustainability. Key words: Crop rotations, wheat, summer fallow, legume green manure, flex-cropping, production costs, net returns, income variability