Canadian Police Organizations Research Articles

Bridging the divide: Exploring inequities between sworn and civilian leaders in a Canadian police service.

Policing in the 21st century has rapidly become more complex, accountable, and changeable. Concern has emerged across the globe over the sustainability of public policing. Empirical research has supported that effective leadership at all levels of an organization is necessary to achieve success. Much has been said about the importance of effective leadership in policing. This paper explores an unexpected key finding from a mixed-methods, explanatory sequential design doctoral study that examined the self-efficacy beliefs and the factors that have influenced the leader effectiveness of sworn and civilian police leaders in a major Canadian police organization.

Barriers and bridges: Exploring the introduction of meditation and mindfulness training into Canadian policing

Canadian police organizations are under significant pressure to enhance the health and wellness of their employees. Growing research suggests that training in meditation and mindfulness can contribute to the well-being of police personnel and may even be a catalyst for police reform. Limited research, however, has been conducted that seeks to understand how these practices should be introduced into Canadian police organizations. This article contributes to this understanding by sharing results from an exploratory study that asked 11 Commissioned Officers, who regularly practice meditation, to identify the key factors that should be considered when introducing mindfulness practice into their large Canadian police service. Using semi-structured interviews and focus groups, and guided by a reflexive thematic analysis approach, six themes were developed. These can be viewed as both barriers (invincibility and stigma; overworked and overstressed; and checkbox cynicism) and bridges (credible champions; the whole person perspective; and the philosophy of servant leadership) to the successful introduction of meditation and mindfulness practices into Canadian police organizations. This study advances the literature on introducing mindfulness to policing as it is one of the first to focus on the perceptions of mindfulness practicing Commissioned Police Officers. It also offers practical suggestions for police leaders, and leaders from other public safety professions, to consider when contemplating the introduction of these mental practices into their organizations.

Narcan and Narcan't: Implementation factors influencing police officer use of Narcan.

First responders-including police officers-play a prominent role in managing the risk of fentanyl overdoses. In many jurisdictions, they have Naloxone (also commercially available as Narcan) at their disposal to counter the effects of an opioid overdose. Little empirical research exists on how effectively police are incorporating this emergency rescue medication into routine practice. Between 2018 and 2019, we conducted semi-structured interviews with police officers from two Western Canadian police organizations. We also administered organization-wide web surveys to determine what factors facilitate or inhibit the incorporation of Narcan into police practice by looking at two domains: 1) the inner setting of the police organization and 2) personal knowledge of, and attitudes toward, an intervention. Whether officers administered Narcan depended on several personal and organizational factors, including: 1) having sufficient knowledge and concern about the fentanyl situation, 2) being knowledgeable about Narcan and trained in its use, 3) the medication being readily available to officers, and 4) being willing to administer it to citizens.

Exploring Differing Experiences of a Masculinity Contest Culture in Policing and the Impact on Individual and Organizational Outcomes

Despite increasing allegations of misconduct, police organizations continue to overlook the environmental factors that contribute to harassment and other forms of misconduct. Using secondary survey data collected from a Canadian police organization ( N = 488), this study explored the specific factors that might contribute to masculinity contest cultures (i.e., cultures akin to a zero-sum competition with rules defined by masculine norms; MCCs). This study also examined whether MCC norms are experienced differently based on level within the organization, occupational role, and employee sex. The study findings suggest that MCC norms may be amplified by a shortage of personnel, and certain policies and practices that pit members against each other. The study also found that MCC norms are not necessarily perceived in the same way. For instance, female and frontline police officers were more likely to perceive their workplace as a MCC. Female officers were also more likely to experience harassing behaviors. This study makes a significant contribution to research and practice as it advances our understanding of MCCs within policing and how they might be changed.

Fair Treatment for All: Testing the Predictors of Workplace Inclusion in a Canadian Police Organization

The growing diversification of the workforce demands that organizational leaders create workplaces in which individuals have a sense of belonging and are valued for their unique contributions. However, beyond the contributions of certain types of leadership, there is insufficient understanding of the factors that impact experiences of workplace inclusion. Using survey data collected from a Canadian police organization ( N = 488) in the spring of 2018, this study examined whether organizational justice (i.e., fair treatment) was positively associated with workplace inclusion, and whether psychological safety mediated the justice–inclusion relationship. The results of structural equation modelling (SEM) revealed that organizational justice was significantly related to inclusion. Organizational justice was also found to indirectly influence perceptions of inclusion, through psychological safety. In other words, when people were treated fairly, they were more likely to indicate their workplace was psychologically safe, which in turn contributed to feelings of inclusion. Finally, the study findings indicated that personal characteristics, including gender, race and occupational role influenced individual experiences of inclusion.

Countering a masculinity contest culture at work: the moderating role of organizational justice

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to test whether organizational justice (i.e. fair treatment) can mitigate the harmful effects of a “masculinity contest culture (MCC)” (i.e. norms, rituals and belief systems valorizing social dominance, work above other parts of life, physical strength and the avoidance of weakness).Design/methodology/approachThrough an analysis of secondary survey data collected from a Canadian police organization (N = 488), this study tested the moderating effects of organizational justice on the relationship between employee perceptions of their workplace as a masculinity contest, and a negative outcome variable, harassment.FindingsThe results of this study suggest that a MCC was significantly related to harassment, which in turn contributed to lower psychological wellbeing and increased turnover intentions. Independently, organizational justice moderated the effect of a MCC on harassment, suggesting that harassment is less prevalent in the workplace when there is a greater focus on treating all employees fairly.Originality/valueDespite the increase in both scholarly and practitioner interest in the effects of organizational cultures in which employees seek to maintain their own status at all costs, there has been little research examining the interactions of these harmful workplace cultures and the factors that might counter them. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is one of the rare studies to investigate possible interventions for harmful workplace cultures.

Enhancing police engagement: An examination of the links between fair treatment and job engagement in a Canadian police organization

This study examined the relationships between organizational justice and job engagement, and whether these relationships were stronger for civilian staff vs police officers. Using survey data from a Canadian police organization, the results suggested that when police personnel perceived they were treated fairly, they were more likely to have a sense of psychological safety, which, in turn, enhanced their identification with their organization and increased their engagement with work. Findings further demonstrated that distributive justice (i.e., equitable outcomes) was more important to police officers than civilian staff, particularly, in relation to enhancing their attachment with the organization. In other words, as perceptions of distributive justice increased so did organizational identification; however, this effect was strongest for police officers. In general, organizational justice has positive implications for police organizations, namely in encouraging police personnel to engage their full selves at work.

Who Am I? Who Are We? Exploring the Factors That Contribute to Work-Related Identities in Policing

AbstractUsing social identity theory, this study examines the conditions under which police officers become attached (or not) to their organization and to their work, and whether one’s sex influences these relationships. Through an analysis of secondary survey data collected from a large Canadian police organization, the study found that fair treatment and psychological safety were significantly related to officers’ identification with their organization, and in turn, their work. The findings also demonstrated that when officers perceived their workplace as a masculinity contest, they were less likely to identify with their organization. Additionally, perceptions of a masculinity contest were associated with a greater likelihood that officers reported lower levels of psychological safety, and this effect was more significant for female officers. While women overall were no less likely than men to be attached to their organization or their occupational role, women who perceived their workplace as psychologically less safe reported lower levels of identification. The study also found that race and level within the organization may have a greater effect than sex on work-related identification. Overall, the study makes a significant contribution to the nascent literature on work-related identification and policing, as well as to the body of research on women in policing.

Police Officer Transformational Leadership: Development and Validation of a Self-reported Scale

The aim of this study is to develop and test the factorial validity of a questionnaire about police officer’s transformational leadership on the ground. Based on Bass’s (1985) transactional/transformational leadership model, Police Officers Transformational Leadership Scale is composed of 33 items rated on a Likert-type scale from (1) Completely disagree to (6) Completely agree. Respondents were 167 police officers from a large French Canadian police organization and two small police corps. The results show that a model structure with two second-order dimensions (transactional and transformational leadership), consistent with Bass’s theory (1985), provided a good fit to the data. The results suggest that this questionnaire is well suited for describing the transformational leadership of police officers.

To what extent do Canadian police professionals believe that their agencies are ‘Targeting, Testing, and Tracking’ new policing strategies and programs?

Some researchers suggest that police professionals see little value in adopting evidence based approaches to tackle policing challenges. To examine this issue, 586 Canadian police professionals were surveyed. We explore responses to one particular question, which caused 353 respondents to reflect on whether they think their agencies enact evidence based policing (EBP) principles in daily operations; specifically, the principles of targeting, testing, and tracking the implementation of new policing strategies. Mixed views were expressed by respondents in relation to their agency’s ability to target high priority policing problems and to test strategies for fixing these problems. However, views were overwhelmingly negative when respondents reflected on how well they thought their agencies track the effectiveness of strategies over time. If these views accurately describe how agencies target, test, and track the implementation of policing strategies, they underline potential challenges associated with the adoption of EBP in Canadian police organizations.

Impediments to Information and Knowledge Sharing within Policing: A Study of Three Canadian Policing Organizations

Information sharing is the lifeblood of policing, yet information/knowledge sharing within and across organizations remains problematic. This article elaborated on previous research on organizational information culture and its impact on information use outcomes in policing by examining perceived impediments to information sharing of 134 officers in three Canadian police organizations. Inductive qualitative analysis of an open-ended question revealed seven mutually exclusive impediment themes: processes/technology, individual unwillingness, organizational unwillingness, workload/overload, location/structure, leadership, and risk management. When viewed from the knowledge management infrastructure perspective, organizational structure was the single most common impediment identified, followed closely by organizational culture. Each organization had unique constellations of information sharing impediments. Recommendations for policy and practice are discussed.

Impediments to Information and Knowledge Sharing Within Policing

Information sharing is the lifeblood of policing, yet information/knowledge sharing within and across organizations remains problematic. This article elaborated on previous research on organizational information culture and its impact on information use outcomes in policing by examining perceived impediments to information sharing of 134 officers in three Canadian police organizations. Inductive qualitative analysis of an open-ended question revealed seven mutually exclusive impediment themes: processes/technology, individual unwillingness, organizational unwillingness, workload/overload, location/structure, leadership, and risk management. When viewed from the knowledge management infrastructure perspective, organizational structure was the single most common impediment identified, followed closely by organizational culture. Each organization had unique constellations of information sharing impediments. Recommendations for policy and practice are discussed.

Police Witness Interview Training, Supervision, and Feedback: A Survey of Canadian Police Officers

Despite the recognized importance of intensive training for producing effective police interviewers and the importance of sustained supervision and feedback in maintaining learned interviewing skills, there is no empirical data on the current state of such practices in Canadian police organizations. Canadian police officers (N=171) from two organizations completed an online survey about the training, supervision, and feedback received for interviewing adult witnesses. Officers reported that their training was limited and came from several disparate sources, and many officers expressed a lack of satisfaction with the interview training that they had received. The majority of officers also indicated that it was rare for them to receive supervision or feedback from their supervisors on their interviews or refresher training to help them maintain their skills. The implications of these findings for police interviewing practices and the potential to use these results to improve current witness interviewing practices in Canada are discussed.

A field study of adult witness interviewing practices in a Canadian police organization

Purpose. The current study examined witness interviewing practices in a Canadian police organization. The effect of interviewer, interviewee, and interview characteristics on those practices was also examined. Method. Ninety witness interviews from a Canadian police organization were coded for the following interviewing practices: types of questions asked (i.e. open‐ended, probing, closed‐ended, clarification, multiple, leading, opinion/statement, and re‐asked), the number of interruptions, percentage of words spoken by interviewer, type of pre‐interview instructions (consequential vs. generic), and whether or not a free narrative was requested (and when requested during the interview). Characteristics pertaining to the interviewer (e.g. primary interviewer's age), interviewee (e.g. witness gender), and interview (e.g. crime type) were also coded. Results. Results showed that closed‐ended and probing questions were the most widely asked questions, and that open‐ended questions were asked relatively infrequently. It was also found that the 80–20 talking rule was violated in 89% of the interviews, interviewers rarely interrupted the witnesses, and free narratives were requested often. Overall, the effect of interviewer, interview, or interviewee characteristics on interviewing practices was minimal. Conclusions. The finding that scientifically prescribed interviewing practices are employed rarely by Canadian police officers highlights a need for increased professional interviewing training. The finding that practices are largely unaffected by personal and situational factors suggests that such training would be equally beneficial for all types of interviewers, interviewees, and contexts.

Measuring Reading Complexity and Listening Comprehension of Canadian Police Cautions

The reading complexity and listening comprehension of Canadian police cautions were measured. In Study 1, the complexity of 44 unique Canadian police cautions was assessed using five readability measures (Flesch-Kincaid reading level, sentence complexity, use of difficult words, use of infrequent words, and number of words). Results showed that 7 (37%) of the right-to-silence cautions ( n = 19) and none of the right-to-legal-counsel cautions ( n = 25) reached acceptable cutoff levels for all five measures. In Study 2, university students ( N = 121) were presented with one of three cautions verbally and were asked to explain its meaning. Despite variations in complexity across the three cautions, participants understood approximately one third of the information contained in the cautions. The extent to which the needs of Canadian suspects and police organizations are being met and the validity of reading complexity as a predictor of listening comprehension are discussed.

The recruitment and selection of visible minorities in Canadian police organizations, 1985 to 1987

Abstract: This study is an update of the 1985 survey. The main object of the study was to review existing police recruitment and selection policies across Canada between 1985 and 1987; identify systemic barriers, if any, faced by visible minorities in entering police forces; and to make recommendations in order to increase the representation of such minority persons in Canadian police departments.Fourteen police departments, representing all regions of Canada including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP), the Quebec Police Force (QPF) and others were included in the study.The findings indicated that (a) there has been some improvement in the hiring of visible minority police officers since the 1985 study; (b) policy makers in pertinent jurisdictions need to amend police legislation to bring the statutes in compliance with the Charter of Rights and the human rights laws with respect to police uniform requirements, age and height standards; (c) police organizations need to review their selection policies with regard to job interviews, psychological tests and the like in order to avoid possible adverse impact on minorities; and (d) police organizations not collecting data on visible minorities should be required to do so.Sommaire: Constituant une mise à jour d'une enquête effectuée en 1985, cette étude a pour but principal de réviser les politiques qui ont été appliquées au Canada entre 1985 et 1987 pour recruter et sélectionner des policiers. L'objectif poursuivi est de voir si les minorités visibles se heurtent systématiquement à des barrières lorsqu'elles veulent entrer dans la police et de formuler des recommandations pour que ces dernières soient mieux représentées dans les services de la police au Canada.Cette étude a touché quatorze corps de la police, représentant toutes les régions du Canada, dont la Gendarmerie royale du Canada (GRC), la Police provinciale de l'Ontario (OPP) et la Sûreté du Québec (SQ).Les conclusions de l'étude sont les suivantes: a) depuis 1985, un léger progrès a été accompli en ce qui concerne l'embauche d'officiers de police venant des minorités visibles; b) les décideurs dans chacune des juridictions sous étude doivent modifier les règlements en vigueur en ce qui concerne les uniformes, l'âge et la taille des policiers de façon à les rendre compatibles avec la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés et les diverses chartes provinciales; c) les corps de police doivent réviser leurs règles de sélection, en ce qui concerne les entrevues et les tests psychologiques, ou autres, pour éviter tout effet pervers sur les minorités; et d) les corps de police qui ne rassemblent pas de données sur les minorités visibles devraient être tenus de le faire.