Canadian Interuniversity Sport Research Articles

Gender inequality in Canadian interuniversity sport: participation opportunities and leadership positions from 2010-11 to 2016-17

ABSTRACT Combining results from four separate studies of gender equality in Canadian interuniversity sport, which were conducted biennially across four academic years (2010–11, 2012–13, 2014–15, and 2016–17), this paper analyses gender inequality in both athletic participation opportunities and leadership positions (coaching and administrative) across the 56 universities that comprise U SPORTS, the pan-Canadian governing body for Canadian interuniversity sport. Our findings indicate that Canadian interuniversity sport is characterised by persistent and ongoing gender inequality in both the opportunity to participate as an athlete and employment in leadership positions. We analyse these results in light of the historical struggle for women’s opportunity in Canadian interuniversity sport and the development, but apparent lack of implementation, of U SPORTS’ gender equity policies. We also critique the failure of U SPORTS and its member universities to act on the persistent gender inequality identified in our data, despite policy impetus to do so, and provide policy recommendations to address these inequalities.

Academic Timing and the Relative Age Effect Among Male and Female Athletes in Canadian Interuniversity Volleyball.

This study examined the moderating effects of academic timing on the relative age effect in men's and women's U Sports (formerly Canadian Interuniversity Sports) volleyball. Interuniversity sport exists within an academic setting and encompasses different age groups within a single team, making it necessary to account for the academic timing of student athletes when studying the relative age effect. To be considered "on-time," a student athlete's birthdate and expected athletic eligibility status must coincide, while a "delayed" student athlete will have an athletic eligibility corresponding with a younger cohort. We collected birthdates and eligibility years from the U Sports eligibility certificates of 2,780 male and 3,715 female athletes for the years 2006-2007 through 2013-2014; we then classified athletes as either on-time or delayed. We used a chi-square (χ2) goodness-of-fit tests to compare the observed distributions of student athletes' actual versus "expected" births across each quartile. Our analyses demonstrated an advantage for athletes born in the first half of the selection year. These results suggest that delaying entry into university may help equalize the playing field for relatively younger athletes wishing to compete in U Sports volleyball.

Neuro-Metabolite Changes in a Single Season of University Ice Hockey Using Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Background: Previous research has shown evidence for transient neuronal loss after repetitive head impacts (RHI) as demonstrated by a decrease in N-acetylaspartate (NAA). However, few studies have investigated other neuro-metabolites that may be altered in the presence of RHI; furthermore, the relationship of neuro-metabolite changes to neurocognitive outcome and potential sex differences remain largely unknown.Objective: The aim of this study was to identify alterations in brain metabolites and their potential association with neurocognitive performance over time as well as to characterize sex-specific differences in response to RHI.Methods: 33 collegiate ice hockey players (17 males and 16 females) underwent 3T magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and neurocognitive evaluation before and after the Canadian Interuniversity Sports (CIS) ice hockey season 2011–2012. The MRS voxel was placed in the corpus callosum. Pre- and postseason neurocognitive performances were assessed using the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test (ImPACT). Absolute neuro-metabolite concentrations were then compared between pre- and postseason MRS were (level of statistical significance after correction for multiple comparisons: p < 0.007) and correlated to ImPACT scores for both sexes.Results: A significant decrease in NAA was observed from preseason to postseason (p = 0.001). Furthermore, a trend toward a decrease in total choline (Cho) was observed (p = 0.044). Although no overall effect was observed for glutamate (Glu) over the season, a difference was observed with females showing a decrease in Glu and males showing an increase in Glu, though this was not statistically significant (p = 0.039). In both males and females, a negative correlation was observed between changes in Glu and changes in verbal memory (p = 0.008).Conclusion: The results of this study demonstrate changes in absolute concentrations of neuro-metabolites following exposure to RHI. Results suggest that changes in Glu are correlated with changes in verbal memory. Future studies need to investigate further the association between brain metabolites and clinical outcome as well as sex-specific differences in the brain's response to RHI.

Longitudinal Changes in Body Composition Throughout Successive Seasonal Phases Among Canadian University Football Players.

Kim, J, Delisle-Houde, P, Reid, RER, and Andersen, RE. Longitudinal changes in body composition throughout successive seasonal phases among Canadian university football players. J Strength Cond Res 32(8): 2284-2293, 2018-The purpose of this study was to assess changes in body composition during seasonal phases of the training year among Canadian Inter-University Sport (CIS) football players. Forty university football players were assessed for anthropometry, total body composition, regional body composition, and central adiposity over a 7-month period including the summer off-season and the in-season. Baseline testing occurred in April, before the summer off-season, and follow-ups were completed before training camp, at the beginning of August, and following the in-season, at the beginning of November. Linemen had the greatest tissue percent fat (25.98 ± 6.56%) at baseline, significantly (p < 0.01) greater than big skill (18.69 ± 3.97%) and followed by skill (14.35 ± 3.39%) who were significantly (p < 0.01) leaner than both other groups. Skill players significantly increased fat mass (0.98 ± 0.30 kg, p ≤ 0.05) and waist-to-hip ratio (0.02 ± 0.01, p ≤ 0.05) during the in-season, and linemen increased visceral fat mass from April to November (0.20 ± 0.06 kg, p ≤ 0.01). All players significantly (-1.26 ± 0.30 kg, p = 0.001) decreased lean mass during the in-season. All groups significantly increased bone mineral content during the summer off-season (p ≤ 0.05). There was also a significant time × summer training location interaction (p ≤ 0.05) for fat mass with athletes who remained on campus during summer months gaining the least amount of adiposity. Body composition and central adiposity seem to change differentially among positional groups across the annual training season.

An Examination of Hazing in Canadian Intercollegiate Sports

The overall purpose of the present study was to examine hazing among university athletes in Canada. More specifically, athletes’ experiences with hazing behaviors, knowledge regarding hazing, perceptions of the nature of hazing, attitudes toward hazing, and exposure to hazing policy and prevention/intervention strategies were investigated. A total of 434 U Sports (formerly known as Canadian Interuniversity Sport) athletes from various varsity-level and club-level sports participated in the study. Results showed that 58% of athletes experienced at least one hazing behavior. Some athletes reported that coaches were not only aware of hazing behaviors, but also present while hazing behaviors occurred. Athletes who experienced hazing perceived more positive outcomes of hazing than negative, and did not report hazing incidents because they believed experiencing hazing was part of being a member of the team. A small percentage of athletes had participated in hazing prevention workshops. Implications of these findings pertain to education on hazing, hazing prevention strategies and interventions.

Delayed or on-time? Examining the moderating effect of academic timing on the relative age effect among Canadian interuniversity athletes

ABSTRACTRelative age effects (RAE) are developmental advantages experienced by those born in the initial months after a predetermined cut-off date over their younger counterparts. Student-athletes are considered to be “on-time” when their current year of athletic eligibility coincides with their expected year of athletic eligibility, based on their year of birth. Conversely, student-athletes are considered “delayed” when their current athletic eligibility year corresponds with a younger cohort. This study examined the impact of the RAE and academic timing on participation within nine of the 12 Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) championship sports. A logistic regression was conducted to predict academic timing based on participants’ quartile of birth and sex. The results indicated that males are significantly more likely to be delayed than females, and those student-athletes born in the later months of the year are more frequently delayed compared to their relatively older peers.

Athletes’ Perceptions of Positive Development Resulting from Canadian Intercollegiate Sport: A Content Analysis

Governing bodies of university sport have adopted more holistic approaches to the development of their athletes (Canadian Interuniversity Sport, 2013; NCAA, 2015). To our knowledge, there has been little empirical effort made to describe and assess positive development in the Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) context. In this study, we qualitatively examined positive development outcomes associated with athletes’ participation in CIS sport programs. We conducted semi-structured open-ended interviews with 15 student-athletes (5 male, 10 female; Mage = 22, range = 17-26). To analyze the data, we performed a deductive content analysis (Hsieh &amp; Shannon, 2005) using positive development categories found within the Youth Experience Survey (YES 2.0; Hansen &amp; Larson, 2005). Athletes discussed positive developmental outcomes consistent with all YES categories. Our results suggest university sport programs offer rich opportunities for developing skills, qualities, experiences, and relationships needed to become functioning members in our society.

Sex differences in white matter alterations following repetitive subconcussive head impacts in collegiate ice hockey players.

ObjectiveRepetitive subconcussive head impacts (RSHI) may lead to structural, functional, and metabolic alterations of the brain. While differences between males and females have already been suggested following a concussion, whether there are sex differences following exposure to RSHI remains unknown. The aim of this study was to identify and to characterize sex differences following exposure to RSHI.MethodsTwenty-five collegiate ice hockey players (14 males and 11 females, 20.6 ± 2.0 years), all part of the Hockey Concussion Education Project (HCEP), underwent diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) before and after the Canadian Interuniversity Sports (CIS) ice hockey season 2011–2012 and did not experience a concussion during the season. Whole-brain tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) were used to compare pre- and postseason imaging in both sexes for fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD). Pre- and postseason neurocognitive performance were assessed by the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test (ImPACT).ResultsSignificant differences between the sexes were primarily located within the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), the internal capsule (IC), and the corona radiata (CR) of the right hemisphere (RH). In significant voxel clusters (p < 0.05), decreases in FA (absolute difference pre- vs. postseason: 0.0268) and increases in MD (0.0002), AD (0.00008), and RD (0.00005) were observed in females whereas males showed no significant changes. There was no significant correlation between the change in diffusion scalar measures over the course of the season and neurocognitive performance as evidenced from postseason ImPACT scores.ConclusionsThe results of this study suggest sex differences in structural alterations following exposure to RSHI. Future studies need to investigate further the underlying mechanisms and association with exposure and clinical outcomes.

Current Practices and Attitudes of Canadian Team Physicians Toward Cardiovascular Preparticipation Screening

To determine the current cardiovascular preparticipation screening practices and attitudes of team physicians for Canadian University and Major Junior Hockey Athletes, a 13-question survey was distributed to lead physicians of each organization. The response rate was 47% (48% [27 of 56] for the Canadian Interuniversity Sport and 55% [11 of 20] for the Ontario Hockey League). Ninety-two percent of physicians reported some form of preparticipation screening, with 22% currently using 12-lead electrocardiogram. Substantial inter- and intraorganization variability existed. Physicians not performing electrocardiogram screening reported lack of evidence (45%) and lack of cost-effectiveness (28%) as their rationale. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate Canadian athletic screening practices, and highlights the need for national guidelines.

Influenza a Vaccination Knowledge, Attitude, Practice of Athletes Competing in Canadian Interuniversity Sport in Calgary, Alberta

Objective: To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) of Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) athletes regarding influenza A vaccination. Design: Cross-sectional survey. Setting: University of Calgary. Participants: The CIS athlete (N=450) population was sampled by convenience (n=177, mean age 20.4 ± 2.2 years) and compared to non-athlete kinesiology students (n=34, 21.06 ± 2.7 years of age). Independent variable: Vaccination history. Main outcome measures: A frequency analysis was employed to describe the KAP of each group. Groups were compared by c 2 or Kruskal-Wallis analysis. Results: Over half of athletes were aware of influenza vaccination safety, effectiveness and side effects. Athletes were significantly more concerned about contracting the virus due to potential consequences, such as an interruption of training and infection of teammates, compared to non-athletes (p<0.05). Nearly one third (29.2%) of athletes reported vaccination participation. Conclusion: The vaccination participation of CIS athletes is low when requirements for herd immunity are considered. Keywords : Athletes, university students, influenza, influenza A, knowledge, attitude, practice

Frequency and Magnitude of Head Accelerations in a Canadian Interuniversity Sport Football Team’s Training Camp and Season

The increased awareness of concussion in sport has led to an examination of head impacts and the associated biomechanics that occur during these sporting events. The high rate of concussions in football makes it particularly relevant.1 The purpose of this study was to examine how frequently, and to what magnitude, Canadian University football players get hit in training camp and how this compares to practices and games in regular season. An ANOVA with repeated measures indicated that, on average, players were hit significantly more in games (45.2 hits) than training camp sessions (17.7 hits) and practices (8.0 hits), while training camp was associated with significantly more hits than practices (p &lt; .001, η2 = .392). Multiple positional differences were found. In particular, significantly more hits were experienced by offensive linemen (36.7 hits) and defensive linemen (31.6 hits) compared with all other positions (p &lt; .001, η2 = .247). Study outcomes determined players/positions most at risk for concussion due to head impacts, which is beneficial in forming concussion prevention and assessment strategies.

International Student-Athletes in Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS): Perceptions, Motivations, and Experiences

This exploratory study investigated the landscape of international student-athletes participating in Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS), the governing body for university sport in Canada, with respect to number, sport, and gender breakdown, as well as their perceptions, motivations, and experiences. Of the over 11,000 CIS student-athletes competing in 2012–14, 5.1% were international. In addition, the sports with the highest number of international student-athletes were basketball and soccer. Semistructured interviews with 16 international student-athletes from the four regional associations determined that the majority of participants were motivated to attend a Canadian university for the opportunity to combine athletics with academics. Furthermore, the experiences of those international student-athletes interviewed were mostly positive. This study may benefit university institutions, their athletics programs, as well as the CIS by providing knowledge of the motives of international student-athletes as...

Four Keys to Building a Championship Culture

Winning a national championship is a rare feat; winning five consecutive championships is extraordinary. One such example has recently occurred with the University of Windsor women’s basketball team which competes in the Canadian interuniversity sports league. The team’s head coach, Chantal Vallée, has a combined regular season and playoff winning percentage greater than 80%, including winning five consecutive Canadian national championships. Even more astounding is that before her appointment the school had only four winning seasons in their 50-year history, and had never hosted a playoff game. The purpose of this paper is to explain the remarkable turnaround of this program. This article will provide both the “what” (Enacting The Vision; Athlete Empowerment; Teaching Life Skills; Lifelong Learning and Personal Reflection) and the “how” (blueprint) of the transformation of the University of Windsor women’s basketball into a perennial national contender.

Coaches’ Perspectives of Intrateam Competition in High Performance Sport Teams

Competition is a common phenomenon and occurs frequently in sports. In high performance sports, competition takes place not only between teams (interteam competition) but also within a team (intrateam competition). In the intrateam competition, coaches might play a central role because of their power to structure competition within their teams. Yet, there is a lack of research exploring how coaches facilitate this type of competition. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to explore how university-level team sport coaches’ experience, structure and use intrateam competition. Eight full-time Canadian Interuniversity Sports head coaches participated in semistructured interviews. The participants indicated that intrateam competition involves two distinct types of competition: situational and positional competition. While situational competition occurs primarily in practices, positional competition is an ongoing, continual process in which athletes who occupy the same position compete for playing time. The coaches shared important considerations about how to carefully structure and use both types of competition constructively. The study is an original account of intrateam competition as a multifaceted, constructive process within high performance sport teams.

Coaches’ Perspectives on their Roles in Facilitating the Personal Development of Student-Athletes

The purpose of this study was to investigate coaches’ perspectives on the personal development student-athletes experience through interuniversity sport. Additionally, it explored the ways in which coaches understand, enable, and facilitate the personal development of student-athletes. Eight in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with male and female head coaches of Canadian Interuniversity Sport programs. A qualitative analysis of the data revealed that the coaches perceived the enhancement of student-athletes’ personal development to be an important part of their role. Despite this claim, the coaches had difficulty in defining personal development and articulating how they facilitated opportunities for athletes’ personal development through sport. The findings from this study have implications for future interuniversity sport programming.&#x0D;

Great Expectations: How Role Expectations and Role Experiences Relate to Perceptions of Group Cohesion.

Many athletes experience a discrepancy between the roles they expect to fulfill and the roles they eventually occupy. Drawing from met expectations theory, we applied response surface methodology to examine how role expectations, in relation to role experiences, influence perceptions of group cohesion among Canadian Interuniversity Sport athletes (N = 153). On the basis of data from two time points, as athletes approached and exceeded their role contribution expectations, they reported higher perceptions of task cohesion. Furthermore, as athletes approached and exceeded their social involvement expectations, they reported higher perceptions of social cohesion. These response surface patterns-pertaining to task and social cohesion-were driven by the positive influence of role experiences. On the basis of the interplay between athletes' role experiences and their perception of the group environment, efforts to improve team dynamics may benefit from focusing on improving the quality of role experiences, in conjunction with developing realistic role expectations.

Navigating the "Brawn Drain": Canadian Student-Athlete Experiences in the U.S. and Canada

There is an abundance of research on athletic scholarships and the experiences of college athletes (Duderstadt, 2000; Herbert, 2004; Miller &amp; Kerr, 2002; Paskey, 2000; Sack &amp; Staurowsky, 1998; Schofield, 2000; Shulman &amp; Bowen, 2001). However, since much of this work has focused on the U.S. context, there is a scarcity of literature pertaining to the experiences of Canadian student-athletes. This study explores what is known as the "brawn drain"—the apparent movement of Canadian student-athletes to the U.S.--and compares their experiences with those who remain in Canada. In- depth, open-ended interviews with Canadian student-athletes at U.S. universities revealed that on the one hand, these athletes endured arduous training regimes, an increased pressure to perform athletically, and a higher value placed on athletic performance that at times compromised their academic priorities. On the other hand, interviewees noted their satisfaction with superior training facilities and the opportunity to continue to compete at a high level, benefits that they felt were not available in Canada. Our analysis is contextualized within the recent debates among and beyond Canadian Interuniversity Sport on the possibility of raising the annual cap on athletic scholarships in Canada (Paskey, 2000).

Coaches’ Perceptions of a High Performance Sport Model in Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS)

The landscape of sport with Canadian universities is shifting rapidly to reflect an emphasis on high performance models and a concomitant prioritization of performance outcomes. The purpose of this study was to explore coaches’ perspectives of the meaning and implications of high performance sport models in Canadian universities. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with male (n = 4) and female (n = 4) head coaches of Canadian Interuniversity sport (CIS) teams. Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed inductively. These CIS coaches perceived that a high performance sport model is associated with a greater emphasis on winning, which in turn, has implications for job security for coaches, and the personal development of student-athletes. These findings are interpreted to suggest that an “NCAA creep” is occurring in Canadian universities. Recommendations are made for embedding interuniversity sport programs within the educational mission of universities.

Organizational socialization in team sport environments.

Socialization tactics are often used to manage initial group member interactions in a way that facilitates transition experiences. Although this process is heavily researched in organizational contexts, we sought to extend this line of inquiry to sport by examining the nature of socialization tactics used to integrate new members into existing teams. Interviews were conducted with 12 coaches and 12 athletes from several Canadian Interuniversity Sport teams to explore the nature of socialization and the circumstances underscoring why certain approaches are taken over others. A key process involved establishing congruency of role expectations between incoming athletes and group leaders, and socialization processes balanced expectations of conformity with encouragement of individual personalities within the group. A conceptual basis to examine socialization into team sport environments is discussed in relation to the extant organizational theories, and the practical implications of delineating sport socialization tactics are forwarded.

Strength and Power Changes During an In-season Resistance Training Program for Male CIS Volleyball Players

Previous research has indicated that performing repetitions to failure at greater than 80% one repetition max (1 RM) one day per week using a non-­‐linear training program can maintain strength and power in many athletic populations. However, this finding has not been directly assessed in male university volleyball players. The purpose of this study was to determine if non-­‐linear training two days a week could maintain upper and lower body strength, and vertical jump power and height over the course of a competitive volleyball season, measured at three time points. Eleven trained Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) male athletes were a part of a single training group which completed a maintenance program consisting of non-­‐linear training for 17 weeks. At each testing time point, the participants completed a bench press, squat, squat jump, countermovement jump, and three step jump and reach. We predicted that non-­‐linear resistance training of mixed intensities twice a week would allow players to maintain strength, vertical jump power, and vertical jump height. Results indicated that upper body strength can be maintained over the course of a competition period with non-­‐linear resistance training (p = 0.043). Scores for lower body strength, vertical jump squat jump power, vertical jump countermovement jump power, and vertical jump height increased over the course of the season (p's &lt; 0.001, 0.14, 0.181, and 0.006, respectively). Our results indicate that male volleyball players can benefit from non-­‐linear training to maintain or improve performance when training at &gt; 80% 1 RM to failure once a week during a competition season.