Canadian Federal Prisons Research Articles

Predictive accuracy of static risk factors for Canadian Indigenous offenders compared to non-Indigenous offenders: implications for risk assessment scales

ABSTRACTThe over-representation of Indigenous offenders in Canadian prisons highlights the importance of research on the generalizability of potential static risk factors for this group. The current investigation examined whether 87 static indicators currently assessed in Canadian federal prisons were differentially present and related to outcomes (revocations, general recidivism, and violent recidivism) for Indigenous (n = 1500) and non-Indigenous (n = 6684) male federal offenders. The follow-up was eight months for revocations and five years for any/violent recidivism. Indigenous offenders scored significantly higher risk than non-Indigenous offenders on the majority of the indicators (particularly criminal history indicators). Generally, most criminal history indicators and some offence severity indicators predicted revocations, general, and violent recidivism for Indigenous offenders; however, several of the indicators had significantly lower accuracy for Indigenous offenders (particularly criminal history indicators). Overall, Indigenous offenders are a higher risk population and several static risk indicators do not perform as well for this group as for non-Indigenous offenders. Nonetheless, there were numerous static indicators that did predict outcomes for Indigenous offenders. The current findings suggest that it is possible to meaningfully assess static risk for recidivism among Indigenous offenders.

The Nature of the Space: Walls to Bridges as Transformative Learning

Community-based learning initiatives have the potential to have a meaningful impact on participants. When integrated into an academic setting, such experiential learning opportunities can initiate transformative learning within students and the broader community. Through a self-reflexive approach, this essay describes one such first-hand experience from a Walls to Bridges class, offered through Wilfrid Laurier University and facilitated in a Canadian Federal Prison. The learning model utilized within this class has the capacity to deeply engage students in ways where traditional classroom methodology falls short. Institutionalized education can learn a great deal from this model, which values diversity and community building, and which centralizes voices that are often absent or marginalized in academic settings. This essay examines the nature of a Walls to Bridges class as it compares to traditional educational experiences. The essay explores current, dominant educational paradigms that are influenced by capitalistic values and can perpetuate power imbalances and systemic barriers, while also highlighting alternatives to traditional education models. Teaching methodologies, such as collaborative rather than competitive learning, circle pedagogy, the creation of a safe classroom space, power redistribution, and creative means of critical classroom discussions, are celebrated as opportunities for deep learning.

Insights on Prison Needle and Syringe Programs: Research With Former Prisoners in Canada

Although injection drug use occurs inside Canadian federal prisons, the correctional service does not allow prisoners access to sterile injection equipment as a harm reduction measure. International evaluations have shown that prison-based needle and syringe programs (PNSPs) lead to many beneficial health and other outcomes, and contribute to safer environments for prisoners and staff. This article presents qualitative data from a community-driven study with 30 former prisoners in Ontario, Canada. Participants shared insights that are highly valuable for understanding the prison context in relation to the need for PNSPs, both in Canada and in other jurisdictions.

Researching sport in a ‘Total Institution’: reflections on research barriers and methodological adaptations in a study of prison physical culture

This paper reflects on the methodological challenges faced during a qualitative research project on sport and physical culture in the Canadian federal prison system, during which the author tried and failed to gain access to observe sport programming and conduct interviews in two prisons. The paper has three principal aims. Firstly, to self-reflexively analyse the experience of failing to gain access to a research site and the subsequent methodological adaptations undertaken. Secondly, to assess the difficulties for scholars of sport and physical culture of researching in a ‘total institution’. And thirdly, to advocate for the use of bricolage in sports studies, as both a methodological tactic for researching difficult-to-access sites or subcultures and an interpretive analytical tool. This paper fills a unique void in the literature on sport research in total institutions, offering a critical and reflexive methodological examination of the barriers to qualitative research at such sites. It will be of particular interest to researchers of sport and physical culture who must find creative methodological solutions to research barriers, particularly in sites, subcultures and organisations to which access is severely restricted.

“It Goes on Everywhere”: Injection Drug Use in Canadian Federal Prisons

ABSTRACTBackground: International and Canadian research on in-prison injection drug use has documented the frequency of its occurrence as well as some of the resulting consequences such as increased prevalence of HIV and hepatitis C virus. Access to prison-based harm reduction programing is thus important. Objectives: The aim of this study was to learn from former prisoner experiences and insights on in-prison injection drug use in order to advance and improve access to harm reduction options, in particular prison-based needle and syringe programs (PNSPs). Methods: The qualitative and community-based study was conducted in 2014/2015 and included former prisoners from Ontario, Canada (N = 30) who had recent experience of incarceration in a federal prison and knowledge of injection drug use. Data analysis followed the deductive approach, drawing on the expertise of the academic and community-based research team members. Results: Interview and focus group participants disclosed that drugs are readily available in Canadian federal prisons and that equipment used to inject is accessed in a variety of ways, sometimes gained through illicit means and sometimes made by prisoners themselves. Equipment sharing is a frequent occurrence, and disposal of such supplies is rare. Conclusions/Importance: While not yet available in Canada, PNSPs have led to positive outcomes in international contexts, including reductions in needle sharing and transmission of HIV and hepatitis C. Support for PNSPs among numerous Canadian organizations and associations, along with a recent change in government, could suggest a renewed opportunity for PNSP implementation.

Temporary absences from prison in Canada reduce unemployment and reoffending: Evidence for dosage effects from an exploratory study.

Temporary absences (TAs) from prison are intended to assist gradual reintegration. TAs can be either escorted (ETA) or unescorted (UTA). This exploratory study examined who received TAs, ETAs, and UTAs in Canadian federal prisons and the impact of these absences on community outcomes. The sample included 27,098 offenders released to the community between April 1, 2005 and March 31, 2011. Propensity scores for receiving TAs were used to control for group differences in outcome analyses. Participation rates were 22% for ETAs and 4% for UTAs. The strongest predictor was sentence length: Offenders with longer prison sentences were more likely to receive TAs. Other key predictors included moderate risk, higher motivation level, and fewer problems with institutional adjustment and on prior periods of community supervision. Participation was related to significantly lower levels of unemployment, returns to custody for any reason, and returns to custody for a new offense. Furthermore, a significant dosage effect was found for all TAs and ETAs: The more TAs the offender received, the less likely they were to return a custody. Absences from prison play an important role in gradual reintegration to the community, and the more the offenders participate in, the better the outcomes.

Finding Their Way: Conditions for Successful Reintegration Among Women Offenders

The transition from prison to community is challenging for women. Herein we propose a framework of reintegration readiness from women's experiences of community re-entry after a prison stay. In qualitative interviews with 31 women who spent time in Canadian federal prisons, they described the time immediately following their release, specifically person-specific and context-specific factors that allowed them to successfully adapt to society. Addictions and unresolved trauma were barriers to reintegration success. In their transition from prison to the community, it is important to address these person- and context-specific conditions as well as trauma and addictions to improve reintegration readiness.

The prison adjustment of Aboriginal offenders

This study examined the misconduct of all 18,075 Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal offenders admitted to Canadian federal prisons between 2006 and 2009. We found that Aboriginal prisoners had a higher involvement in incidents of major and minor misconduct than their non-Aboriginal counterparts. Consistent with prior prison research, younger prisoners, males, and those with higher levels of risk and dynamic needs had higher involvement in misconduct as perpetrators. By contrast, prisoners who had participated in violence reduction or substance abuse programs were involved in fewer incidents. Both gang involvement and victimization were also robust predictors of prison misconduct. These findings can guide the development of programmatic responses to help offenders develop better skills to adjust to their incarceration and successfully reintegrate in the community following release from prison. Consistent with the Statistics Canada (2013) definition, Aboriginal refers to persons who are Status Indians, Métis peoples (people of mixed Indian and other ethnicities) and Inuit peoples (persons from the far North).

Establishing and asserting masculinity in Canadian penitentiaries

Prisons housing adult men have been identified as hypermasculine environments. As a gender process, masculinities are influenced by a multitude of factors. Although presentations of masculinities vary across men and over time, researchers have identified some shared masculine ideals many men try to embody. As a subset, the hegemonic or dominant form of masculinity includes elements that ensure a level of domination is held by those who embody certain traits, particularly within the context of gendered social relations. The tools and strategies prisoners use to exert or shape their masculinity within the prison social structure, however, have not yet been examined in the context of Canadian federal prisons housed in Ontario. Within the prison culture, I argue, hegemonic masculinities determine social interactions and enforce a hierarchy among prisoners where power and domination are asserted through physical, psychological and material means. How masculinities are manifested and exerted as well as how they governed social relations with other prisoners were investigated through in-depth face-to-face interviews with 56 Canadian ex-prisoners. Findings suggest ‘prison’ masculinities are contextually influenced and exaggerate traditional constructs of masculinity evident in larger society. The hypermasculine nature of the prison experience, the oppressive and hierarchical nature of masculinities in prison and the limited opportunities for the expression of masculinities by prisoners are discussed.

Childhood sexual victimization, pedophilic interest, and sexual recidivism

ObjectiveThe goal of the current study was to examine the extent to which child sexual abuse (CSA) and particular characteristics of CSA are associated with pedophilic interest and sexual recidivism. MethodsSubjects were 462 adult male sexual offenders who had been incarcerated in Canadian federal prisons. ResultsCompared to sexual offenders who had not been sexually abused, those who had been sexually abused before age 16 sexually offended against significantly younger victims and had significantly more indicators of pedophilic interest. This was the case whether we examined self-reported or officially documented CSA. Offenders who had been sexually abused exclusively by a male had significantly more indicators of pedophilic interest than those who had been sexually abused exclusively by a female. These findings are consistent with past research and theory suggesting that CSA may play a role in pedophilia and sexual offending against children. CSA exclusively by a female abuser predicted higher rates of sexual recidivism than abuse by a male or both a male and female abuser. Among offenders with victims 15 years old or younger, a closer relationship between offender and abuser predicted higher rates of sexual recidivism. The relationship between CSA and sexual recidivism was significantly moderated by actuarial risk. More specifically, CSA predicted higher rates of sexual recidivism among higher risk offenders, but CSA did not predict sexual recidivism among lower risk offenders. This novel finding raises the possibility that CSA may play a role in sexual recidivism for some offenders. ConclusionIf future research replicates this CSA by risk interaction and identifies the constructs and processes involved, CSA may be worth considering in risk assessment and treatment.

Medication Use, Substance Use, and Psychological Conditions of Female Inmates in Canadian Federal Prisons

SummaryThis study provides data on substance use patterns, including medications, among female inmates in Canadian federal prisons. The participants were interviewed regarding their substance use and their psychological condition before and during incarceration. Their medication cards were also analyzed. The results show that a large proportion (66.9 %) of these incarcerated women reported substance abuse prior to incarceration and exhibited psychological disorders. In prison, if the illicit substance use remained low, most subjects had prescriptions for more than one medication. Furthermore, women with psychotropic medication prescriptions in their file had, on average, prescriptions for two different psychotropic medications. Significant relationships were found between substance misuse before incarceration and illicit substance use or and psychotropic medication use during incarceration. These results support the need to develop integrated services for both addiction and mental health for female offenders during incarceration.

An examination of the inmate code in Canadian penitentiaries

Scholars researching the development and adoption of an inmate code in penitentiaries have agreed on its basic elements and the influence of the prison environment on its adoption. Yet, the changing climate in Canadian penitentiaries and the fact that the inmate code has yet to be studied in a Canadian context remain of concern. Thus, this study seeks to empirically document current elements of the inmate code in Canadian federal prisons in Ontario and theoretically explain why this code is adopted by prisoners in these penitentiaries. In light of researchers noting the impact of risk, including its assessment and management, on behaviors, I argue that risk – defined here as concern for safety – and unsafe prison environments have reshaped the code. Drawing on data collected from interviews with 56 ex-prisoners, I propose that the inmate code in Ontario penitentiaries is composed of five primary tenets: (1) ‘never rat on a con’ and don't get friendly with the staff; (2) be dependable (not loyal); (3) follow daily behavior rules or else; (4) I won't see you, don't see me, and shut up already; and (5) be fearless or at least act tough. A portrayal of the current unsafe and high risk nature of Canadian penitentiary environments in Ontario and its implications for the prisoners in residence is also provided. Findings are discussed within a risk context with an emphasis on empirical and theoretical implications.

“I've never been so free in all my life”: healing through Aboriginal ceremonies in prison

The purpose of this article is to examine the leisure experiences of Aboriginal women in a Canadian federal prison as they engaged in traditional ceremony. This study explores how Aboriginal women's experiences of ceremony, conceptualized as leisure, challenged the controlling environment of the prison and contributed to the release of pain and other feelings that resulted from traumatic events. The healing experiences of the Aboriginal women in this study are ultimately contrasted with the oppressive environment of the prison. The findings suggest that surveillance, discipline and punishment were replaced with a safe and secure emotional space, which provided an environment for the women to collectively reveal their vulnerabilities and begin to heal. This process of healing led to the embodiment of Sisterhood, which was portrayed through the development of mutually trusting, caring and supportive relationships.

Leisure as a Context for Justice: Experiences of Ceremony for Aboriginal Women in Prison

The purpose of this paper is to examine the leisure experiences of Aboriginal women in a Canadian federal prison as they engaged in traditional ceremony. Conceptualized as leisure, these ceremonies were examined in the context of justice by exploring the women's resistance to oppression and loss of identity rooted in colonization. The findings of the study suggest that through ceremony, Aboriginal women's identities and understanding of being Aboriginal evolved from pain and shame to pride and connection with cultural values and traditions. Through cultural ceremonies, the women experienced liberation from a colonialized Aboriginal identity. In this process of liberation, women resisted and refocused the dominant conceptualization of justice based on white ideologies of crime and punishment, to encompass Aboriginal forms of justice, as manifest in the collective maintenance of harmony and balance.

Looking Back 10 Years After the Arbour Inquiry

The decade of the 1990s can be marked as one of major dissension, conflict, and change within federal corrections for women in Canada. In this article, the authors reflect back on this period of time by examining the correctional ideologies, policies, and practices that were operating in the Canadian federal prison for women. Finding these policies and practices to be inherently gendered and punitive in nature, it is argued that punishment was at the time and continues to be the cornerstone of the regulation of women prisoners, and that it takes a specific, gendered form that relies on the deployment of traditional patriarchal conceptions of femininity. Drawing on interviews with correctional personnel and analyses of correctional policies and the Arbour Inquiry transcripts, this article reconstructs Correctional Service of Canada’s (CSC) responses to incarcerated women’s “unfeminine” behavior, specifically women’s self-harming behavior and their violence against others, as overly disciplinary. It is proposed that CSC’s ideological foundation, as well as the practices and policies that were operating both at the time of and following the incident at the Kingston Prison for Women that resulted in the Arbour Inquiry, remain deeply entrenched in an oppressive hierarchical structure of gender inequality. This structure fails to question how traditional conceptions of femininity shape policies and practices. It has also aided in the construction of a new genre of “misbehaved” women in corrections, which in turn has been used to justify the harsh regulatory treatment of federally sentenced women. Without challenging its traditional gender ideologies, CSC is unable to offer any alternatives to its punitive practices, which continue to operate.

The dynamic prediction of criminal recidivism: A three-wave prospective study.

A three-wave, prospective panel design was used to assess the extent to which static and dynamic risk factors could predict criminal recidivism in a sample of 136 adult male offenders released from Canadian federal prisons. Static measures were assessed only once, prior to release while dynamic measures were assessed on three separate occasions: pre-release, 1 month, and 3 months post-release. Recidivism was coded during an average of 10.2-month follow-up period (SD=19.2). A series of Cox regression survival analyses with time-dependent covariates and Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) analyses were conducted to assess predictive validity. Although the combined static and time-dependent dynamic model (AUC=.89, CI=.81-.93) significantly (p<.01) outperformed the pure static model (AUC=.81, CI=.73-.87) the confidence intervals did overlap to some extent. Implications for dynamic risk assessment and management are discussed.

Security, Without Care: Challenges for Restorative Values in Prison

This article examines some conceptual issues that arise when we consider the implications of introducing restorative justice in prison. Using the definition of ‘security’ as ‘without care,’ the analysis focuses on two key restorative justice concepts: relationships and values. The significance of relationships in restorative justice is emphasized through the lens of aboriginal justice where healing of individuals and their relationships is centered. Values have to do with justice and care. These concepts are discussed in concert with two specific rehabilitative strategies in Canadian federal prisons—education and correctional programming—and then with the general rehabilitation project of the prison in Canadian democratic society. Significant contradictions occur, however, when we attempt to nest the rehabilitative ideals of relationships and values in the context of a punitive total institution whose overriding emphasis is on security. These contradictions are intensified when competing versions of security as ‘attachment’ from a human development perspective challenge the penal notion of security as ‘detachment and separation.’

Sexual Addiction in Incarcerated Sexual Offenders

The prevalence and features of sexual addiction in sexual offenders incarcerated in a Canadian Federal prison were examined. Eighty male respondents (40 sexual offenders, 40 community subjects) completed questionnaires on sexual addiction and drug and alcohol problems. Sexual offenders were significantly more likely than the comparison group to be classified as sexual addicts. Fourteen of 40 sexual offenders (35%), and 5 of 40 community subjects (12.5%) were classified as sexual addicts. Sexual offender sexual addicts were more likely than non-addicts to report a preoccupation with sex and having been a victim of childhood or adolescent sexual abuse. However, sexual offender sex addicts were no more likely than sexual offender non-addicts to report co-morbid addiction problems with drugs or alcohol. Results are discussed in terms of their implication for the notion of sexual addiction and its relationship to sexual offending.

Feasibility and Outcome of HCV Treatment in a Canadian Federal Prison Population

We assessed feasibility and outcome of hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment in male correctional inmates in British Columbia, Canada. We reviewed the medical charts of 114 treated inmates; 80 had complete data for treatment outcome. Approximately 4 of 5 inmates completed treatment (78.8%); 66.3% achieved sustained virological response. Those who completed treatment, those with injection drug use as a risk factor, and those with genotypes 2 and 3 were significantly more likely to achieve sustained virological response. HCV treatment in correctional inmates is feasible and effective.

Canadian Federal Prison Libraries

A nationwide survey of the libraries in Canada’s 51 minimum, medium and maximum security federal correctional institutions was conducted in 2001 through a mailed questionnaire that received a 73 per cent response rate. The questionnaire was directed to the person in charge of the library. The survey gathered information about library staffing, library users, the size and composition of the collection, library funding and limitations on acquisitions and access imposed by the prison administration or the library staff because of subject matter, e.g. violent or sexual material. The results of the survey are set in the context of international prison library history and policy. Overall, the respondents said that their prison libraries were meeting offenders’ needs for recreational, cultural, educational and informative material, but that there was much room for improvement in funding for staff and collections. They also felt that their libraries were undervalued within the prison administration.