Campus Sexual Assault Research Articles

Sexual Assault Campus Climate Surveys: Insights From The First Wave

One tool to help institutions of higher education (IHEs) to address campus sexual assault is the campus climate survey (CCS); yet little is known about the CCS implementation process. This study used a mixed methods approach to examine the implementation process of CCSs deployed during the 2015/16 academic year at 244 IHEs throughout the United States. Quantitative results indicate CCSs were designed primarily by the Title IX officer and campus administration; assessed victimization rates and knowledge about campus resources; and were voluntary. Qualitative findings generate concerns surrounding generalizability, participation rates, validity of data, and suggestions for improvement for future CCSs.

(En)forcing a Foolish Consistency?: A Critique and Comparative Analysis of the Trump Administration’s Proposed Standard of Evidence Regulation for Campus Title IX Proceedings

Prevention of sexual assault and sexual harassment are major challenges at U.S. colleges and universities today. In recent years a vigorous law and policy debate emerged within the higher education community about Title IX and whether the “preponderance of evidence” or “clear and convincing” evidence represents the more appropriate standard of evidence in campus sexual violence and sexual harassment disciplinary procedures. During the Obama administration the Office for Civil Rights in the U.S. Department of Education issued a 2011 “Dear Colleague” letter recognizing that the preponderance of evidence standard was the appropriate standard for Title IX investigations. The Trump administration's Office for Civil Rights rescinded this earlier guidance and in November 2018 issued a notice of proposed rulemaking regarding Title IX regulations. The new proposed regulation reflects a “you can have more discretion, if you ratchet up” policy: a college can only use the preponderance of evidence standard if it adopts that same standard across-the-board in similarly serious non-Title IX student misconduct cases and in both Title IX and non-Title IX cases where the accused/respondent is a faculty member or employee. If a campus chooses to adopt the clear and convincing evidence standard in Title IX cases, the proposed regulation would not restrict campus discretion in non-Title IX student cases. While the relationship between the burden of proof and outcomes is complicated and dynamic, the main tendency if campuses were to shift to the clear and convincing evidence standard in Title IX adjudications would likely be a net decrease in accuracy because the rise in “false negative” errors (student or employee commits sexual misconduct but is found not responsible) would outnumber the corresponding decrease in “false positive” errors. By implication, a shift to the clear and convincing standard would also make it more difficult – other things being equal – for campuses to impose disciplinary accountability in cases of serial sexual misconduct and serial sexual harassment. This article also aims to inform the debate about Title IX and faculty and student disciplinary cases by objectively identifying whether the preponderance of evidence or clear and convincing evidence standard is used in most domains that are reasonably analogous to faculty Title IX-related misconduct proceedings (a more stringent test than looking only at student-to-student Title IX cases). This review includes U.S. federal civil rights adjudications, faculty research misconduct cases linked to federal research grants, civil anti-fraud proceedings, attorney debarment/discipline cases and physician misconduct/license cases. In a large majority of these areas, preponderance of evidence is used as the standard of evidence. This pattern highlights concerns about the Office for Civil Rights selectively referencing cases that support its proposed Title IX regulation and questionable claims about the clear and convincing evidence standard and stigma. This article also raises questions, depending on how the notice-and-comment process unfolds, about the proposed Title IX regulation and the Administrative Procedure Act.

Advocacy Services for College Victims of Sexual Assault: Navigating Complicated Confidentiality Concerns

ABSTRACTRecent policy reforms related to campus sexual assault may pose confidentiality concerns for victims. The current study aimed to understand current issues in providing confidential advocacy services for college victims of sexual assault, as well as the differential roles that campus-based and community-based advocacy play for college victims. For this qualitative study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 national experts on campus sexual assault from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds. The results indicate that campus-based advocates face challenges in maintaining confidentiality of victims’ information, whereas community-based advocates are more likely to have legal confidentiality protections. Consequently, participants noted that an ideal advocacy model for college victims might be one in which campus- and community-based services are closely coordinated to ensure access to services that are both confidential and meet the unique needs of college students. Implications for advocacy services are discussed, as well as future directions for research and evaluation on the effects of evolving policy aimed at improving institutional responses to sexual assault.

Using Participatory Action Research to Teach Community Practice in a Post-Truth Era

[full article, abstract in English; abstract in Lithuanian]
 This project focuses on the learning experiences of master of social work students in an advanced community practice course. The primary pedagogical method for the class was participatory action research, specifically the photovoice method. The MSW students completed a photovoice project focused on campus sexual violence in which they recruited students, outside the class, as participants. As coursework, students generated reflection papers, responses to readings, and focus group notes. These artifacts constituted the data for this project. The data analysis included grounded theory methods and a focus on post-truth politics, from which three categories emerged: (a) supporting cultural competence, (b) facilitating self-awareness (c) and viewing truth as multifaceted.

Walking the Walk: Testing a Theory-Derived Measure of Campus Sexual Assault Policy Implementation.

Institutional Theory posits that organizations sometimes engage in practices that are inconsistent with their stated policies-a process called "decoupling"-due to three types of legitimacy pressures: normative, coercive, and mimetic. Limited previous research suggests that such decoupling between policy and practice may be occurring in institutions of higher education (IHEs) when addressing sexual assault. The objective of this study was to test a measure designed to assess sexual assault policy implementation using the constructs of Institutional Theory. The measure was tested with a national sample of 210 staff and faculty at IHEs who work on sexual assault prevention and response on their campuses. This study assessed (a) the reliability of the measure; (b) the degree to which the measure identified legitimacy pressures and decoupling in the sample; (c) the degree to which legitimacy pressures were linked to decoupling in the sample, as the theory suggests; and (d) the degree to which campuses and individual characteristics were differentially associated with decoupling and legitimacy pressures. Principal factor analysis resulted in a factor structure that conformed reasonably well to the existing constructs of Institutional Theory, with the addition of a new construct reflecting an institution's stated commitment to addressing sexual assault. Regression analyses found that only normative legitimacy pressures significantly predicted decoupling and commitment. Higher decoupling scores were found for public campuses and larger institutions. Campus-based victim advocates reported significantly higher rates of decoupling than Title IX coordinators. The findings suggest that the process of policy implementation may vary across campus types and that further research is needed to better understand the impact of campus sexual assault regulatory attention.

Masculinity in Fraternities: Impact on Campus Sexual Violence

Masculinity in Fraternities: Impact on Campus Sexual Violence

Defining Rape

Legal definitions of rape traditionally required proof of both force and nonconsent. Acknowledging the difficulty of demonstrating the conjunction of force and nonconsent, many feminists argue that rape should be defined based on one element or the other. Instead of debating which of these two best defines the crime of rape, I argue that this framework is problematic, and that both force and nonconsent must be situated in a critique of social power structures. Catharine MacKinnon provides such a critique, and she reframes rape as a matter of gender inequality. However, rather than rejecting the force/nonconsent dichotomy, MacKinnon focuses exclusively on force, which she thinks can be reconceived to include inequalities. Considering the #MeToo movement and feminist efforts to use Title IX to address campus rape, I argue that the concept of consent is more flexible than MacKinnon suggests and that “affirmative consent” can challenge this liberal model. In requiring active communication, affirmative consent shifts responsibility for rape, opens space for women’s sexual agency, and allows for the transformation of rape culture. Thus, I argue that rape should be defined by the use of force, the lack of affirmative consent, or the presence of both elements.

Administrative Response to Campus Sexual Assault: Thinking Through Implementation Tensions

Sexual assault is a pervasive problem on university and college campuses. Although not a new problem, media and political attention has placed renewed pressure on institutions of higher education to prevent and respond to campus sexual assault. To be effective, policies and procedures need to fit with the contextual and administrative realities of the institution. To help IHE administrators better understand and navigate the nuanced issues surrounding campus sexual assault, the following paper synthesizes the empirical literature with a focus on 6 general and 3 administrative tensions inherent to IHE sexual assault prevention and response strategies.

Religion, Gender Norms and Campus Rape Culture: Building Resistance from Below

In recent years, protests against campus rape culture at South African higher education institutions have attracted public attention. Despite strong constitutional provisions, a culture of sexual and gendered violence remains endemic in South Africa. In the light of the gap between legal forms and social norms, this article argues for building socio-political resistance from below that starts with exploring the lived experiences of young women. It therefore introduces the voice of one ordinary student who inhabits these spaces. She highlights the need for attention to be paid to the gendered social norms that underpin this culture of sexual violence, the possibilities of engaging men as allies and the important but ambiguous role of the Christian religion. Research suggests that bystanders like her can become important agents of change. The article concludes that the connections between hierarchical gender norms, religious formation and rape culture need further empirical engagement in South Africa if their power-laden roots are to be disrupted and reimagined.

A Feminist Catholic Response to the Social Sin of Rape Culture

AbstractDespite pervasive sexual violence against women, especially the extensive problem of rape on college campuses, there is virtually no Catholic response. This paper seeks to fill this lacunae by examining campus rape culture as an instance of social sin. Within this sinful social reality, rape is not deviant, but is the extreme manifestation of gender norms and expectations that construct femininity as sexual availability and masculinity as sexual aggression and dominance. Participation in the sin of rape culture may range from actions of student and administrative bystanders to the everyday and mundane way that individuals live their gendered and sexual selves. In response, I offer three theological resources for moving toward transformation of rape culture into one that fosters the full human flourishing of all: interruption, conscience, and solidarity.

Impact of Exposure to Sexual Violence Prevention Messages on Students' Bystander Behavior.

Bystander intervention is a prevention strategy commonly used to address campus sexual violence. Increasingly, there are calls for prevention efforts to be multilevel and ongoing. The current study investigated the impact of receiving varied prevention messages throughout adolescence and into early adulthood to determine whether it influences college students' awareness of sexual violence, willingness to intervene as a helpful bystander, and actual prosocial bystander behavior. These questions were tested through administration of an online survey to a racially and ethnically diverse sample of 1,047 undergraduate students at a large, urban university in the mid-Atlantic. Results found that most students received information about sexual violence prior to coming to campus from a variety of sources, and that the sources varied significantly by gender and race. Regression analysis found that greater exposure to prevention messages prior to coming to college was significantly associated with greater bystander intentions and behavior even after accounting for gender and race and exposure since coming to college. The findings provide initial support to expand the scope of prevention efforts and to begin them prior to college.

Student views on campus sexual assault

Objective: To report on college student opinions about the scope of college sexual misconduct (CSM), suggested university sanctions, and treatment of students found responsible of CSM.Participants: In all, 23 US undergraduate students (14 females and 9 males) with a mean age of 20 years.Methods: Students participated either in female, male, or mixed-sex focus groups that facilitated the discussion of factors related to CSM.Results: Students provided in-depth feedback on the climate on US college campuses and factors related to CSM. They agreed upon CSM risk factors and context characteristics, but raised different male and female issues across sex groups. They further provided resolute suggestions for the solution of CSM, experienced treatment barriers, and limited victim reporting.Conclusion: Student focus groups provide important information about the scope of CSM and offer valuable suggestions for the solution of the problem that may be crucial for the development of successful sexual assault interventions.

Sexual Assault Victimization and Perceptions of University Climate Among Bisexual Women

Sexual minority women are more likely to experience campus sexual assault than their heterosexual peers, and previous research suggests that bisexual women are especially at risk. The purpose of this study was to compare sexual assault victimization rates and perceptions of the campus climate around sexual assault among bisexual, gay/lesbian, and heterosexual women. Surveys were administered to 6,072 university women. Results indicate that bisexual women were two times more likely to experience sexual assault than heterosexual women. Bisexual women perceived the university and students’ response to sexual assault less positively and had lower sense of community than heterosexual women. Sense of community moderated the relation between sexuality and perceived student response to sexual assault such that bisexual women with low sense of community had the least favorable perceptions. The results highlight the importance of conducting research and developing resources that are sensitive to the unique experiences of bisexual women rather than assuming all nonheterosexual women have similar experiences.

College Mental Health: Prevalence, Etiology, and New Directions

The college years represent a period of risk for transitional-age youth. Mental disorders are common among college students and frequently go untreated. In addition, campus sexual assault has emerged as a significant public health issue, and students with mental health and substance use problems are at enhanced risk. This Symposium will provide participants with up-to-date epidemiological data on common mental disorders and their correlates in college students and present novel directions for assessment and treatment, including virtual reality and web-based interventions derived from CBT. Furthermore, participants will learn about the risk and correlates of campus sexual assaults and the intersection between sexual assault and mental health and well-being.

Supplemental Material for Measuring Campus Sexual Assault and Culture: A Systematic Review of Campus Climate Surveys

Supplemental Material for Measuring Campus Sexual Assault and Culture: A Systematic Review of Campus Climate Surveys

Starting the Conversation: Are Campus Sexual Assault Policies Related to the Prevalence of Campus Sexual Assault?

One goal of university campus sexual assault (CSA) policies is to help prevent CSA. Federal guidance in the 2014 White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault Checklist for Campus Sexual Misconduct Policies suggests 10 elements for inclusion in CSA policies (e.g., Policy Introduction, Grievance/Adjudication), and outlines policy topics to be included within each element (Policy Introduction includes two topics: statement of prohibition against sex discrimination including sexual misconduct and statement of commitment to address sexual misconduct). However, no research has examined whether CSA policies impact CSA prevalence. To begin addressing this gap, we studied 24 universities participating in the 2015 Association of American Universities Campus Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Sexual Misconduct. We linked 2014-2015 data from these universities' CSA policies and their CSA prevalence findings from the 2015 Association of American Universities (AAU) survey. To test whether the comprehensiveness of schools' CSA policies was related to schools' CSA prevalence, we examined the degree to which the CSA policies included recommended policy content from the aforementioned Checklist. Policies were characterized as more comprehensive if they included greater numbers of Checklist topics. We then correlated the number of topics within the policies with school-level CSA prevalence. We also explored whether there was lower CSA prevalence among schools with policies containing particular topics. Results suggested that greater comprehensiveness of schools' entire CSA policies was negatively correlated with CSA prevalence; however, these findings did not approach statistical significance. The number of negative correlations observed between schools' CSA policy elements and CSA prevalence among undergraduate women was greater than expected by chance alone, suggesting a possible connection between comprehensive CSA policies and CSA prevalence. Schools with policies that included a topic on their sexual assault response team had the lowest CSA prevalence for both women and men, and schools that included topics describing grievance/adjudication procedures had lower CSA prevalence. This study provides a novel examination of CSA and could inform needed research related to the impact of CSA policies on CSA.

Communicating About Affirmative Consent: How the Threat of Punishment Affects Policy Support and Gender Stereotypes

Colleges are increasingly adopting "affirmative consent" policies, which require students to obtain conscious and voluntary consent at each stage of sexual activity. Although this is an important step forward in violence prevention, very little is known about how best to present the policies to students. This is important, as research on sexual harassment policy training finds that training can reinforce traditional gender beliefs, which undermines policy goals. Building on this literature, we argue that affirmative consent policy trainings emphasizing punishment will increase support for affirmative consent but will reinforce traditional gender beliefs. We tested our predictions with an experiment in which we randomly assigned undergraduate participants to one of three conditions where they read an excerpt of (a) an affirmative consent policy that emphasized the threat of punishment, (b) an affirmative consent policy that emphasized a normative/moral message, or (c) an ergonomic workstation policy that served as our control condition. We found that punishment framing increased men's support for the policy, had no effect on their likelihood to comply, and increased their perception that "most people" hold men to be more powerful than women. For women, the punishment and normative framings increased support equally, but the normative framing actually decreased likelihood to comply. The policy conditions had no effect on women's gender beliefs. The results suggest that while an emphasis on punishment can help legitimate nonconsensual sex as a social problem, it will not necessarily increase college students' compliance with affirmative consent, and runs the risk of activating essentialist stereotypes about gender difference. As the issue of campus sexual assault becomes increasingly politicized and contested, our findings highlight the need for more research.

Campus Sexual Assault: Forging an Action-Focused Research Agenda.

In recent years, the problem of campus-based sexual assault has emerged as a prominent matter of concern for institutions of higher education. Amid expanded media attention and a shifting policy landscape, many institutions have grappled with programmatic and legal challenges related to systems of investigation and adjudication of sexual assault cases. Meanwhile, many have worked to develop and deploy proactive preventive measures including those involving bystander engagement, peer-driven interventions, sexual assault awareness campaigns, self-defense programs, and the innovative use of social media and other technology. In this context, there is a growing need for high-quality empirical research that can shed light on the extent and nature of campus sexual assault; evaluate existing institutional systems and processes; and promote the development, testing, and evaluation of novel approaches that respond to unmet needs and challenges. As an introduction to a special journal issue devoted to this nascent but rapidly emerging field of inquiry, this article offers context and perspective on the vital role that research can play in the development and advancement of effective policies and strategies to prevent and effectively respond to campus-based sexual assault.

Leveraging Data to Strengthen Campus Sexual Assault Policies.

The U.S. Department of Education recently announced that existing legislation and guidance on campus sexual assault (CSA) policies had created a "failed system" in institutions of higher education. This announcement raises the question of how CSA legislation and guidance should be evaluated and applied in practice. We believe researchers are well situated to not only leverage data and empirically evaluate the success (or failure) of CSA federal and university policies but also to facilitate development of improved, more effective CSA policy. This commentary first chronicles the pivotal role of federal policy and guidance in driving the collection of CSA data and increasing research efforts in this domain. Second, we present recommendations for increased collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policy makers aimed at measuring the effectiveness of current CSA policies and promoting data-driven policy. These recommendations focus on (a) establishing a CSA data repository, (b) analyzing existing CSA data to gain knowledge and identify opportunities for improved data collection, and

“Calling Out” Campus Sexual Violence: Student Activist Labors of Confrontation and Care

“Calling Out” Campus Sexual Violence: Student Activist Labors of Confrontation and Care