Campbell Paradigm Research Articles

Using the Campbell Paradigm to Understand the Role of Institutional Trust in Environmental Policy Support

Previous studies have shown that institutional trust is associated with people’s support for some environmental policies (e.g., support for higher taxation) but not others (e.g., support for subsidies and bans). Such findings seem to contradict the notion that institutional trust helps to resolve social dilemmas and thus facilitates collective action on environmental problems. In the current study, we use the conceptual framework of the attitudinal theory of the Campbell paradigm to understand the lack of institutional trust as a behavioral cost of policy support which counterweights people’s motivation to support a policy. Using a dataset from the Environmental module of a recent ISSP survey conducted in 28 countries, we corroborated the theoretical prediction, namely the expected positive effect of institutional trust on support for both pro- and anti-environmental policies. We also corroborated, albeit with some qualifications, that the choice of environmental policy depends on perceived behavioral costs exemplified, in our study, by institutional trust. The Campbell paradigm provides a useful analytical framework for understanding the role of trust in environmental policy support. It also helps us to understand previous inconsistent findings regarding the effect of trust on environmental policy support.

Exploring intergenerational differences in consumer acceptance of insects-fed farmed fish

This study delves into the multi-faceted process of consumer acceptance of innovative food products, such as insect-fed farmed fish. This is a food product that introduces new, though potentially conflicting, intangible attributes aligning with circularity and sustainability but also evoking negative emotions, such as disgust or neophobia. Drawing from two distinct studies on young and older Italian consumers, we employ an intergenerational lens to explore individual psychometric characteristics, socio-demographic variables, and nudging effects in shaping the acceptance process. We apply the Campbell Paradigm, integrating three acceptance items into well-established scales measuring attitudes towards the environment and nature.Our results reveal that environmental protection inclination, rather than a connectedness to nature, primarily drives acceptance. Notably, young consumers exhibit a more facile acceptance process, indicating lower behavioral costs at each stage. Sociodemographic variables, particularly gender, exert varied influences on acceptance stages, with older women displaying greater hesitancy in adopting new dietary practices. Additionally, exploring the impact of nudges, we find that information significantly influences acceptance, while visual priming does not. Interestingly, the effectiveness of information varies between generations, indicating different reactions and responses.The findings propose strategies for policymakers and marketers to highlight the positive attributes of insects-fed farmed fish, emphasizing sustainability and addressing consumer disgust concerns. Introducing insects as feed in various farming practices may enhance familiarity with this alternative protein source, potentially reducing disgust and fostering widespread acceptance.

A general explanation for environmental policy support: An example using carbon taxation approval in Germany

In democratic societies, public support is crucial for the success of climate change mitigation policies. In this article, we present a parsimonious explanation—grounded in the Campbell paradigm—for explicit approval of environmental policies based on two forces: (a) an individual's commitment to environmental protection (i.e., people's environmental attitudes) and (b) the figurative costs entailed by a specific policy. We tested this model with carbon tax variants and data from German samples from four different sociocultural conditions (Ntotal = 8,166). The results showed that only a minority (36%) were sufficiently committed to environmental protection to approve of a carbon tax regardless of its specific details. Even the most favorable tax level and use of revenue achieved an approval rate of only 48%. Regional differences and interactions among the carbon taxation specifications turned out to be negligible. Overall, our results corroborate the generalizability of the proposed environmental policy support model.

Environmental Attitudes in 28 European Countries Derived From Atheoretically Compiled Opinions and Self-Reports of Behavior.

People differ in their personal commitment to fighting climate change and protecting the environment. The question is, can we validly measure people’s commitment by what they say and what they claim they do in opinion polls? In our research, we demonstrate that opinions and reports of past behavior can be aggregated into comparable depictions of people’s personal commitment to fighting climate change and protecting the environment (i.e., their environmental attitudes). In contrast to the commonly used operational scaling approaches, we ground our measure of people’s environmental attitudes in a mathematically formalized psychological theory of the response process—the Campbell paradigm. This theory of the response process has already been extensively validated, and its relevance for manifest behavior has repeatedly been shown as well. In our secondary analysis of Eurobarometer data (N = 27,998) from 28 European countries, we apply the Campbell paradigm to a set of indicators that was not originally collected to be aggregated into a single scale. With our research, we propose a distinct way to measure behavior-relevant environmental attitudes that can be used even with a set of indicators that was originally atheoretically compiled. Overall, our study suggests that the Campbell paradigm provides a sound psychological measurement theory that can be applied to cross-cultural comparisons in the environmental protection domain.

Opinion polls as measures of commitment to goals: Environmental attitude in Germany from 1996 to 2018

Can opinion polls be used to measure people's personal commitment to protecting the environment over the years, even with data that were not originally compiled from a longitudinal perspective? In a secondary analysis of 12 data sets collected over the course of 22 years and containing more than 28,000 person records, we demonstrate that opinions and reports of behavior can be aggregated into valid depictions of people's personal commitment to protecting the environment (i.e., their environmental attitudes). In contrast to traditional scaling approaches that define such measures by the item sets used for measurement, we grounded our measure in a psychological measurement theory of the response process—the Campbell paradigm. We found that the average level of environmental attitude in Germany has increased slightly since 1996. With a new sample of 1,689 respondents, we validated our estimates of people's environmental attitudes with estimates of the same people's annual CO2 emissions.

The Role of People’s Self-Interests of the Arctic Zone of Russia in Their Pro-environmental Behavior Choices

As environmental behavior is still uncommon in developing countries and needs to be popularized, research on the factors for engaging in certain green practices is of high relevance. The aim of this study is to determine how self-interests of individuals of the Arctic zone of Russia influence the pro-environmental behaviors they choose to fulfill. The main hypothesis of the study is that worse-off individuals are more orientated towards the green practices that meet their economic self-interests; individuals with a higher standard of living are more concerned with reinforcement of self-esteem and acknowledgment from society. Methodologically, the study relied on Maslow’s needs theory and the Campbell paradigm. The dataset was gathered by surveying 1,102 residents of the Arctic zone of the Republic of Karelia on 14 green practices they may use. The data were analyzed by expert assessment, descriptive statistics methods, analysis of variance, correlation and cluster analyses. The study showed that the level of environmental concern of individuals does not depend on their standards of living, but as this involves financial costs; worse-off individuals adhere to fewer green practices and are more likely to choose the less costly ones (with no correlation between the income and the positive economic effect from the practice). At the same time, the green practices of environmentally passive and environmentally active individuals are less suited to their economic interests than the practices of individuals with a medium level of environmental activity. Scientifically, the value of this study is that it specifies and complements Maslow’s needs theory and the Campbell paradigm. The findings are of interest for authorities and non-governmental organizations in their efforts to alter the institutional arrangements for unpopular practices.

Offsetting behavioral costs with personal attitude: Identifying the psychological essence of an environmental attitude measure

Identifying the essence of a latent psychological attribute captured by a measurement instrument requires more than a glance at the measure's indicators or confidence in an established measurement practice. It demands an exploration of the nomological network in which an attribute (e.g., environmental attitude) is theoretically anticipated to operate. With our study, we aimed to identify the General Ecological Behavior (GEB) scale as a Campbell-paradigm-based measure of environmental attitude. In our empirical test (N = 183), we juxtaposed the two estimated parameters—behavioral costs and what is believed to represent environmental attitude—with real costs. To do so, costs were manipulated as objective waiting times that differentiated between otherwise identical pro-environmental behaviors. Our findings corroborate the idea that the GEB's cost estimates reflect actual behavioral costs. Furthermore, progressively increasing costs were the expected progressive impediment of behavior that, according to Campbell's paradigm, environmental attitude is presumed to offset.

Attitude toward environmental protection and toward nature: How do they shape consumer behaviour for a sustainable tomato?

Several research efforts have tried to explain the forces driving food-related decisions. In this article, we explore how individual attitude toward the environment could be a potential determinant of green behavior. This research offers an original methodological framework never adopted in the food consumption domain that is based on the contribution of Campbell Paradigm and the related advancements on attitude measures proposed by the environmental psychology literature. We also contribute to the literature by envisaging a two-dimensional environmental attitude, that distinguishes between attitude toward environmental protection and toward nature appreciation. The ultimate target is to explain consumer purchasing intentions, represented by Willingness to Pay, toward a hypothetical tomato with improved resource use efficiency taking into account consumer psycho-attitudinal propensity towards environmental issues. The analysis is conducted in Italy and in the UK, two countries characterized by different perceptions about tomato as a consumption good and about water related issues. Findings indicate that the two dimensions of consumer attitude affect differently the spending propensity for a sustainable tomato and these differences are also country-specific. The analysis suggests that policies aimed at promoting sustainable food products should also target the consumer type (naturalist or environmentalist) that is more sensible to environmental sustainability.

Energy and resource-saving behaviours in European Union countries: The Campbell paradigm and goal framing theory approaches

The promotion of energy and resource-saving behaviour is one of the primary tools to enhance the reduction of resource consumption and seeking energy and resource efficiency. The aim of this study was, referring to the Campbell paradigm and goal framing theory, to analyse the main determinants of different types of energy and resource-saving behaviours in the European Union (EU) countries. Therefore, it was analysed whether environmental and health concerns and environmental responsibility equally influenced pro-environmental behaviours and whether all types of behaviours related to energy and resource-saving were guided by the same goals. The results showed that the performance of energy and resource-saving behaviours varied across European countries, and in separate EU countries, people were more willing to perform different types of behaviour. Furthermore, respondents who were more concerned about environmental issues and health and were more environmentally responsible tended to perform a variety of actions related to energy and resource-saving. Considering separate behaviours related to energy and resource-saving, environmental responsibility significantly and positively influenced all behaviours. Environmental concern significantly and positively determined all types of behaviours except water-saving behaviour. Health concerns significantly and positively influenced only the avoidance of buying over-packaged products. The analysis of relationships among separate behaviours revealed that behaviours related to energy and resource-saving were guided by different goals and the cost of these behaviours were different. Thus, policymakers should consider these goals to promote energy and resource-saving behaviour in the household sector.

Positive spillover: The result of attitude change

Behavioral spillover is the phenomenon when a behavior change is accompanied by subsequent changes in other behaviors related to the same goal (e.g., environmental protection). We propose to understand behavioral spillover as the result of attitude change. According to the Campbell Paradigm (see Kaiser, Byrka, & Hartig, 2010), pro-environmental behaviors are an expression of a person's environmental attitude. The higher the person's level of environmental attitude, the more behavioral costs the person will endure to perform pro-environmental behaviors. Thus, if the person's attitude changes, what is commonly called behavioral spillover will occur: For all pro-environmental behaviors, the person's likelihood of engaging in any one of them will increase. We illustrate this argument by presenting a secondary analysis of data showing that an attitude change results in the frequencies of various pro-environmental behaviors increasing by 3.5% on average. Our proposed model of spillover enforces the idea that those who wish to promote sustainable pro-environmental behavior must inspire changes in people's environmental attitudes instead of attempting to change specific behaviors.

Beyond “one-size-fits-all” platforms: Applying Campbell's paradigm to test personalized energy advice in the Netherlands

When analyzing ways in which people save energy, most researchers and policy makers conceptually differentiate between curtailment (e.g. unplugging chargers) and efficiency measures (e.g. installing PV cells). However, such a two-dimensional approach is suboptimal from both a conceptual and policy perspective, as it does not consider individual differences that determine energy-saving behavior. We propose a different, one-dimensional approach, applying Campbell's Paradigm through the Rasch model, in which both curtailment and efficiency measures are intermixed on a single scale and ordered according to their behavioral costs. By matching these behavioral costs to individual energy-saving attitudes, we investigate to what extent attitude-tailored energy-saving advice can help consumers to save energy.We present the results of two studies. The first study (N = 263) reliably calibrated a one-dimensional Rasch scale that consists of 79 energy-saving measures, suitable for advice. The second study employed this scale to investigate how users (N = 196) evaluate attitude-tailored energy-saving advice in a web-based energy recommender system. Results indicate that Rasch-based recommendations can be used to effectively tailor energy-saving advice and that such attitude-tailored advice is more adequate than a number of non-personalized approaches.

The Campbell Paradigm as a Behavior-Predictive Reinterpretation of the Classical Tripartite Model of Attitudes.

. In this article, we introduce the “Campbell Paradigm” as a novel variant of Rosenberg and Hovland’s (1960) tripartite model of attitudes. The Campbell Paradigm is based on a highly restricted measurement model that speaks of a compensatory relation between a person’s latent attitude and the costs that come with any specific behavior. It overcomes the overarching weakness of the original tripartite model (i.e., its relative irrelevance for actual behavior) and offers a parsimonious explanation for behavior. Even though this seems attractive, we also discuss why the paradigm has not gained momentum in the 50 years since it was originally proposed by Donald T. Campbell. To demonstrate the paradigm’s suitability even when implemented with an unrefined instrument in a domain where it has not been used previously, we apply the paradigm to a classic data example from attitude research from the 1984 US presidential election to account for the electorate’s voting intentions and actual voting behaviors.

Conformity Within the Campbell Paradigm

Abstract. Conformity – people’s propensity to comply with the norms and expectations of others – is an important driver of behavior. In this research, we develop a measure of people’s level of conformity which is grounded in an innovative paradigm from attitude research. By relying on relatively easy-to-answer questions about past activities, the new scale addresses some of the conceptual and methodical shortcomings of existing conformity measures. Using a sample of 1,398 people, we calibrated individuals’ claims about how they have conformed with norms, conventions, and the expectations of others in the past. Even though some conformity items seem somewhat gender sensitive, all 33 of them nevertheless form a fairly reliable Rasch scale (rel = .67). Convergent and discriminant validity were corroborated with substantial overlaps with traditional conformity, social desirability, and conscientiousness measures, and with a moderate negative correspondence with people’s desire for uniqueness. Incremental and explanatory validity was provided in a quasi-experiment ( n = 152) on evaluations of commercials.

Unravelling the attitude-behaviour gap paradox for sustainable food consumption: Insight from the UK apple market

The remarkable progress made by the sustainable food industry as compared to the persistent small market share it holds, presents attitude-behaviour gap paradox which existing research is yet to address. The paper attempts to resolve this conundrum by addressing two key research objectives: Firstly, we draw on Campbell's paradigm to develop a sustainable product purchase behaviour model by conceptualising and measuring behavioural difficulties in terms of behavioural inhibitors/promoters, which includes Past Purchase, Premium Pricing, and Product Availability and Product Variety barriers. Further to this, we establish the exact role of purchase behavioural inhibitors/promoters from the point of view of Campbell's paradigm. This is achieved through analyses of actual behaviour data consisting of loyalty card data in the UK with a sample size of 1.8 million customers and supermarket shopper till receipt data in the UK. Evidence from the study established the existence of a sustainable product purchase inhibitor and promoter typology, which are critical to sustainable food purchase behaviour, but their degree of influence differ significantly. Our study subsequently, validates the Campbell's paradigm theory since we were able to establish using the actual purchase behaviour data that indeed, the purchase inhibitors are what causes the so-called gap between claimed purchase behaviour and actual purchase behaviour. The study further highlights theoretical and managerial implications of the findings.

Context-appropriate environmental attitude measurement in Nigeria using the Campbell paradigm

The need to tailor environmental policies in Africa with an understanding of public attitudes is commonly acknowledged, but efforts to generate such understanding are generally constrained by a lack of reliable context-appropriate measures. Attempts to ‘borrow’ Western measures in African research are typically undermined by the cross-cultural inequivalence of constructs and theoretical models. Consequently, we tested the potential of the Campbell paradigm—an approach that enables context-specific adaptation of attitude measurement, among a Nigerian sample (N = 543). Data were gathered with a questionnaire survey. Our findings show that a context-appropriate environmental attitude measure can be obtained by assessing the behaviours and intention statements Nigerians execute in response to environmental issues. On average, pro-environmental attitude levels among our sample were characterized by professed intentions to perform the most difficult behaviours and actual engagement in the least difficult behaviours. The environmental attitude measure derived using the Campbell paradigm is positively related to other conventional attitude indicators including the perceived threat of climate change, concern, efficacy beliefs and acceptance of responsibility for mitigation. We conclude that the Campbell paradigm offers a viable avenue to proceed beyond simple assessments of professed environmental attitudes to more accurate evaluations of Africans’ disposition to strive for the achievement of ecological goals in difficult circumstances.

Applying the Campbell Paradigm to sustainable travel behavior: Compensatory effects of environmental attitude and the transportation environment

Both personal propensities and transportation-environment-based factors shape people’s sustainable travel behavior. However, little is known about the interplay of these two types of factors. In contrast to many of the commonly used behavior models in transportation research, the Campbell Paradigm directly accounts for constraining or supporting effects of the transportation environment with the concept of behavioral “costs” and proposes an additive, compensatory interplay with a person’s environmental attitude (i.e., attitude toward environmental protection). The current research (three studies, n = 529, n = 382, and n = 176) provides both quasi-experimental and experimental evidence for this compensatory hypothesis. Drawing on participants’ self-reports, an online scenario, and behavioral observation, we exclusively found that the main effects of the transportation environment and a person’s environmental attitude explained his or her sustainable travel behavior. In all three studies, the interaction effect was never significantly different from zero, and across studies (|rp| = .04), it was even significantly smaller than a conventional small effect. These findings support the Campbell Paradigm as a useful theoretical account and as a policy framework for inducing more sustainable travel behavior.

How do we know we are measuring environmental attitude? Specific objectivity as the formal validation criterion for measures of latent attributes

In this article, our aim is to introduce the formal validation criterion of specific objectivity to environmental psychologists. Using a convenience sample of 787 respondents, we constructed a set of attitude measures. We found that all five scales represented one attribute. As expected from the Campbell Paradigm, individual attitude can be inferred from verbal acts, such as expressions of appreciation, normative expectations, intentions to engage, and self-reports of past engagement in environmentally protective behaviors. Our findings challenge (a) the common practice in psychology of defining measures by their indicators and (b) the presumption of discriminant validity between typical measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions in research within the planned behavior framework. According to our research, the same validation criterion—specific objectivity—that is applied to the measurement of latent attributes in other empirical sciences (e.g., physics) can be applied to the measurement of attitudes.

Striving for mental vigor through restorative activities: Application of the Campbell Paradigm to construct the Attitude toward mental vigor scale

Recognizing people at risk is essential for effective prevention. We developed an instrument that conceptually links engagement in restorative activities with persons’ appreciation for mental vigor. Based on a sample of 322 persons from the general population and a clinical sample of 56 patients diagnosed with burnout, we found that the scope of a person's recovery-geared activities significantly corresponds with cognitive failures, mental fatigue, need for recovery, psychosomatic complaints, and neuroticism. Patients also engaged in significantly more restorative activities than respondents from the general population. Engagement in recovery activities may indicate elevated vulnerability to stress and a need of restoration.

Are we measuring concern about global climate change correctly? Testing a novel measurement approach with the data from 28 countries

The aim of this study is to test the Campbell paradigm (Kaiser et al. 2010) as a novel theoretical framework for the measurement of concern about global climate change and to compare this measurement approach with conventional assessment of GCC concern which is based exclusively on evaluative rating of global climate change concern. Using survey data from 28 European countries (N = 27,919), we find that GCC concern can be inferred not just from evaluative statements related to GCC, as is done in conventional measures, but also from other types of attitude-relevant responses (such as self-reports of mitigation activities and evaluation of mitigation policies). In addition, we also find that even though Campbellian measure is related in a theoretically expected way to conventional evaluative scale of GCC concern, and both measures assess the same latent construct, the former measure can predict difficult mitigation activity whereas the evaluative scale fails in this test of criterion validity. The poor performance of the conventional evaluative measure of GCC concern is due to the relative easiness of evaluative items that makes this measure insensitive to higher levels of GCC concern.

Understanding the foot-in-the-door effect as a pseudo-effect from the perspective of the Campbell paradigm.

Compliance with a small request (a metaphorical foot-in-the-door) promotes compliance with a subsequent big request. Whereas some explanations expect a drop in the behavioural costs of the big request, others suspect that the effect comes from boosting the underlying attitude. However, evidence for both explanations is equivocal and circumstantial, at best. Drawing on what Kaiser et al. (2010) call the Campbell paradigm, we present an integrative account: Compliance with any request demands a corresponding attitude to counterbalance the costs of the request. In our research, 229 participants were randomly assigned to either a foot-in-the-door (i.e., initially asked to sign a pro-environmental petition) or a control condition. Small-request-compliant participants were more likely than control participants to also comply with the big request and to continue filling out environmental-issues-related questionnaires. However, this foot-in-the-door effect occurred without diminishing behavioural costs or increasing attitude levels. Accordingly, the greater likelihood of small-request-compliant participants to also comply with the big request can be parsimoniously explained by baseline variability in people's attitude levels that manifests in their compliance with the initial request. We conclude that several of the foot-in-the-door effects reported in the literature carry the risk of representing mere pseudo-effects.