Campaign Planners Research Articles

Socioeconomic variation in recall and perceived effectiveness of campaign advertisements to promote smoking cessation

There are large disparities in cigarette smoking rates by socioeconomic status (SES) in many countries. There is mixed evidence about the relative effectiveness of smoking cessation media campaigns in promoting quitting between lower and higher SES populations, and studies suggest that some types of ad content may have differential effects by SES. We analyzed data from five waves of the New York Media Tracking Survey Online (MTSO), a web survey involving over 7000 adult smokers conducted between 2007 and 2009, to assess SES variation in response to smoking cessation ads. Smokers with low levels of education and income less often recalled ads focused on how to quit, and perceived them as less effective, than ads using graphic imagery or personal testimonials to convey why to quit. Contrary to predictions offered by the Stages of Change Model, we found no evidence that variation in readiness to quit smoking explained patterns of response by education. Results offer guidance for theorists and campaign planners in developing campaigns that are likely to promote cessation among less educated populations.

The Role of Realism, Similarity, and Expectancies in Adolescents' Interpretation of Abuse-Prevention Messages

Scholars continue to identify the conditions under which exposure to alcohol-related messages predict related behaviors and outcomes. To examine this issue further, researchers used an experiment (n = 452) to investigate the role of participants' perceptions of prevention message realism, similarity, identification, and desirability in their expectancies regarding alcohol use and impaired driving. Results of the experiment indicated that exposure to the messages reduced participants' expectancies for drinking and driving and increased their efficacy for avoiding potentially dangerous situations only when the messages activated mediating variables. No overall difference existed between the treatment groups and the control group without accounting for participants' cognitive and affective reactions to the messages. These results indicate that campaign planners must consider individual differences in audience members' interpretation of messages in order to increase message effectiveness even within seemingly homogeneous target groups.

‘Learn the signs. Act early’: A campaign to help every child reach his or her full potential

To examine the application of a social marketing approach to increase the early identification and treatment of autism and other developmental disorders. The intervention used formative research, behaviour change theory and traditional social marketing techniques to develop a campaign targeting parents, healthcare professionals and early educators to increase awareness of autism and other developmental delays, and to prompt action if a developmental delay was suspected. Using social marketing principles, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention applied baseline research with the target audiences to understand the barriers and motivators to behaviour change, which included a lack of knowledge and resources (barriers), along with a willingness to learn and do more (motivators). Focus group testing of potential campaign concepts led to one particular approach and accompanying images, which together increased perceived severity of the problem and encouraged taking action. The audience research also helped to shape the marketing mix (product, price, place and promotion). Three-year follow-up research in this case study indicates a significant change in parent target behaviours, particularly among parents aware of the campaign, and substantially more healthcare professionals believe that they have the resources to educate parents about monitoring their child's cognitive, social and physical development. Qualitative results from early educators and childcare professional associations have been positive about products developed for daycare settings. The application of social marketing principles, behavior change theory and audience research was an effective approach to changing behaviours in this case. Understanding what the target audiences want and need, looking beyond parents to engage healthcare professionals and early educators, and engaging many strategic partners to extend the reach of the message helped campaign planners to develop a campaign that resonated with the target audiences and, importantly, moved them towards action.

Integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior and Attitude Functions: Implications for Health Campaign Design

This study argues that the integration of the theory of planned behavior and attitude functions can provide a more detailed theoretical explanation and more precise practical guidance regarding behavioral prediction. Relying on a survey of 549 undergraduate students, this research found that individuals' intentions to regularly participate in physical activity were predicted by their utilitarian and self-esteem maintenance attitudes, the effects of which were further moderated by individuals' strength of self-monitoring and self-esteem, respectively. In addition to theoretical implications, this research indicates that campaign planners should consider the use of more-detailed attitude constructs and design functionally matched messages according to the target's personality traits.

Evaluation of the VERB™ Campaign: Challenges and Solutions

The VERB™ It's what you do campaign promoted physical activity to children ages 9–13 through paid advertising, school and community promotions, national partnerships, and community coalitions. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) implemented the campaign from June 2002 to September 2006. Formative, process, and outcome evaluations were integrated into the campaign from the beginning because evidence of how the campaign was working was essential for campaign planners and stakeholders. This article focuses on the outcome evaluation component describing techniques VERB used to address some of the typical challenges in evaluating media campaigns. The rationale and methods of the longitudinal design, the analytic approach, sampling methods, and tools to measure campaign outcomes are presented.

Initial Outcomes of the VERB ™ Campaign : Tweens' Awareness and Understanding of Campaign Messages

Assessing the immediate effects of mass-media campaigns provides early evidence of campaign reach into the defined target populations. Assessing these effects early in a multi-year campaign allows for better message targeting in subsequent years. Cross-sectional analysis of a population cohort. Data were collected annually; this paper reports on 1-year outcome data following a mass-media-led intervention to increase physical activity among children aged 9-13 years. The groups initially reached by the campaign and those that understood the campaign messages were identified. Analysis was carried out using logistic regression. Nationally representative cohort of 2729 children aged 9-13 years (tweens). National mass-communications campaign (VERB) from June 2002 to June 2003, using television, print, and radio as the primary communication channels. In addition, there were promotions in communities, in schools, and on the Internet. Prompted and unprompted awareness of the VERB campaign and understanding of the key campaign message. After 1 year, tweens' unprompted awareness of VERB was 17.3%; prompted awareness was 57%; 25.6% had no awareness of VERB. Prompted awareness did not differ by child's age, gender, or ethnicity but was associated with being from a middle- or high-income household, having a parent who was a college graduate, and being active on 7 or more days the previous week. Unprompted awareness was significantly associated with being a girl, being aged 12-14 years, being white, being from a moderate- or high-income household, having a parent with a college degree, and doing 7 or more sessions of physical activity during the week before the survey. The variables associated with high levels of understanding of the campaign message were similar to those for campaign awareness, except there were no differences in campaign understanding by age, and a significant association was found between campaign understanding and parental approval of physical activity. Measuring initial campaign impact identified the magnitude of immediate effects on population target groups achieved through a mass-media campaign. Campaign planners used the information to develop new messages and adjust media purchases in subsequent years of the VERB campaign.

Table of Contents

AbstractWide Interest in Process Improvement has Campaign Planners Thinking BiggerHigh Dropout Rates for Blacks Attributed to Economics in RAND StudyNaltrexone/Family Treatment Mix Under Study for OpiodsAddiction Issues Still in the Background in Presidential CampaignHow Treatment Providers can ParticipateAnother Perspective on Cultural DifferencesRAND Racial Disparity and Alcohol Treatment StudiesBriefly NotedState WatchResourcesCall for CommentsNames in the News

The Eastern European referendum campaigns on the accession to the European Union–a critical analysis

Abstract This article analyses the communication campaigns organized to increase support for European Union (EU) membership, during referendums held between March and September 2003 in Central Europe. The focus is on the official campaigns, organized and sponsored by the Hungarian, Polish and Estonian governments. The first part of the paper reviews the special characteristics of referendums and information campaigns, followed by the challenges communication planners faced, during planning and implementing the campaigns. The common features and themes of the national campaigns, as well as the differences, are identified and analysed. The article concludes with some important lessons and recommendations to be used by future referendum campaign planners and implementers. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Using knowledge, attitudes and practice (KAP) surveys on lymphatic filariasis to prepare a health promotion campaign for mass drug administration in Alor District, Indonesia

We report the results of two surveys of people's knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) regarding lymphatic filariasis (LF) in Alor District, eastern Indonesia. The results of the surveys were used to prepare and evaluate the social mobilization component of a pilot mass drug administration (MDA) in five villages. In the study area, the filarial parasites Brugia timori and Wuchereria bancrofti are highly endemic. Frequent and severe adverse reactions after MDA may occur especially in areas endemic for B. timori and therefore, a special communication strategy was designed to inform and to educate communities about LF and its control. The first KAP survey was conducted as a baseline pre-MDA with diethylcarbamazine and albendazole and the second as a post-intervention evaluation in order to obtain information on the impact of the communication campaign. Before the information campaign and the subsequent MDA, 54% of the study population had heard of one of the three main terms for LF, whereas after health education and MDA, 89% had heard of at least one of the three terms. Similarly, pre-MDA, 21% reported having had previously taken the treatment for filariasis, while post-MDA, 88% reported having taken the treatment during the pilot treatment period. The historical fears and traumatic experiences associated with past LF treatment campaigns in Indonesia were averted since both the communication campaign and the MDA were designed appropriately for and together with the community. As a result, compliance was sufficient in the first round to successfully begin the elimination process.

Effects of Mass and Interpersonal Communication on Breast Cancer Screening: Advancing Agenda-Setting Theory in Health Contexts

Drawing on components of agenda-setting theory and the two-step flow of information from mass media to news audiences, this study examines the effects of mass and interpersonal communication on breast cancer screening practices among college- and middle-aged women (n = 284). We theorized that screening behaviors among younger women would be influenced more by interpersonal sources of information while screening among middle-aged women would be more influenced by exposure to mass-mediated information. Findings supported anticipated patterns, revealing important and varying roles for both mass and interpersonal communication in the health behaviors of women. Implications for health practitioners and campaign planners, as well as recommendations for future research, are discussed.

Social Marketing Techniques for Public Health Communication: A Review of Syphilis Awareness Campaigns in 8 US Cities

To describe the social marketing approaches used to increase syphilis awareness in 8 US cities. We reviewed the typical academic approach for developing social marketing campaigns and interviewed health department staff responsible for social marketing campaigns in each city. Using social marketing techniques such as target segmentation, concept testing of materials, and formative evaluation, campaign planners throughout the 8 cities developed a variety of approaches to reach their target audiences. Preliminary results suggest 71% to 80% of men who have sex with men interviewed were aware of the campaigns, and 45% to 53% of them reported they were tested due to the campaigns. Campaigns should address the local epidemic and target audience with culturally appropriate messages.

A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Mediated Health Communication Campaigns on Behavior Change in the United States

A meta-analysis was performed of studies of mediated health campaigns in the United States in order to examine the effects of the campaigns on behavior change. Mediated health campaigns have small measurable effects in the short-term. Campaign effect sizes varied by the type of behavior: r¯ = .15 for seat belt use, r¯ = .13 for oral health, r¯ = .09 for alcohol use reduction, r¯ = .05 for heart disease prevention, r¯ = .05 for smoking, r¯ = .04 for mammography and cervical cancer screening, and r¯ = .04 for sexual behaviors. Campaigns with an enforcement component were more effective than those without. To predict campaign effect sizes for topics other than those listed above, researchers can take into account whether the behavior in a cessation campaign was addictive, and whether the campaign promoted the commencement of a new behavior, versus cessation of an old behavior, or prevention of a new undesirable behavior. Given the small campaign effect sizes, campaign planners should set modest goals for future campaigns. The results can also be useful to evaluators as a benchmark for campaign effects and to help estimate necessary sample size

Generating Quitline calls during Australia’s National Tobacco Campaign: effects of television advertisement execution and programme placement

Objective: The study sought to measure the relative efficiency of different television advertisements and types of television programmes in which advertisements were placed, in generating calls to Australia’s national Quitline....

Monitoring vaccine safety during measles mass immunization campaigns: clinical and programmatic issues.

In the planning and implementation of mass immunization campaigns, vaccine delivery has always been a priority. However, safety issues have gained increasingly more attention and grown in importance, and campaign planners must now take them into prime consideration. The World Health Organization has released guidelines to assist with the design and implementation of safety surveillance systems, primarily for developing countries, and these include a new monograph for measles mass campaigns. Experience in the past decade with mass campaigns (primarily in developed countries) shows that measles vaccine performs in these settings as anticipated from pre- and post-licensure studies. Serious adverse events are rare, even under the increased scrutiny extended during a campaign. The experience in developing country settings is growing. The implementation of safety surveillance for mass campaigns offers a unique opportunity for countries to avoid crisis situations and to begin vaccine safety monitoring in routine immunization programs.

The Influence of Organizational Characteristics and Campaign Design Elements on Communication Campaign Quality: Evidence from 91 Ugandan AIDS Campaigns

This research proposes and tests a model of the relationship between organizational factors, campaign design elements, and campaign quality of communication campaigns. It is the first quantitative study to test these relationships across many organizations. The context for the study was AIDS education and outreach campaigns in Uganda, during a time of successful decrease in the spread of HIV infection. Ninety-one organizations were surveyed. Since only 14% of the organizations collected exposure or outcome data, the study focused on the factors affecting campaign quality. Quality was examined by measuring goal specificity, execution quality, and message quality. The results show that financial resources, professional training, participation of outreach workers in planning the campaign, and audience participation in planning and executing the campaign were key organizational variables affecting the quality of the campaigns. The important campaign design elements affecting campaign quality were conducting research, using multiple channels, targeting only a few groups, and pretesting messages. The results have import for campaign planners, managers of organizations conducting campaigns, and funders. In addition, it is vital that organizations collect exposure and outcome data in the future to provide feedback on each campaign.

Distributed Planning Teams

To understand the way distributed teams plan, we considered a number of different configurations. Our research drew on observations and interviews in a variety of settings: The primary source was from Joint Force Air Component Commander exercises. We also drew on observations and interviews for projects with Patriot Missile batteries, air campaign planners, U.S. Marine Corps regimental command posts, and aeromedical evacuation planning teams. These 5 data sources covered 10 different observations and approximately 150 interviews. We concluded that a model of distributed planning should explain how different forcing functions determine the planning processes that are distributed and the type of plan that is produced. We also identified a range of different plan types and forcing functions and a number of hypotheses about how these are linked.

Privacy, HIV Testing, and AIDS: College Students' Versus Parents' Perspectives

This study examines privacy, HIV testing, and AIDS from the perspective of social judgment theory to provide insights to AIDS campaign planners. Participants (N = 367) were surveyed concerning (a) perceptions that release of information about HIV testing violates privacy, (b) contact with persons who have tested HIV positive or have died from AIDS, (c) attitude toward homosexuality, (d) religious intensity and ideology, and (e) sex-role instrumentality and expressiveness. Results indicate that individuals' perceptions of privacy predict willingness to disclose results of HIV tests and specific knowledge of who has been tested. These findings may be especially important to policymakers and campaign planners as issues surrounding HIV testing become more prevalent.

Horserace and Issues in Nigerian Elections

That today's presidential campaign is essentially a mass media campaign is attested to by attention campaign planners give to press and disproportionately huge sums of money political parties and candidates expend on media (Arganoff, 1976). In Nigeria, for instance, long before 1983 campaign proper, major political parties felt they had to establish new newspapers, and/or build new radio and television stations. The existing media institutions were grossly tampered with, their programs rescheduled, and their personnel redeployed to advantage of ruling parties. This is not a uniquely Nigerian phenomenon; drive among American politicians to get editorial endorsements of major and local newspapers is a similar manifestation of largely untested belief in power of media in election campaigns (Erickson, 1966; McCombs, 1967). It is naive to assume that media determine what happens in campaign, much less determine outcome of election (Schramm, 1973). It is no exaggeration, however, to say that majority of time, both politicians and people (voters) view media coverage as the campaign. As Patterson (1980) has noted, For large majority of voters, campaign has little reality apart from its media version. In these days of nonpersonalized communication, mass media are most convenient and economic means of reaching mass voters who must rely on them (the media) for most of their election information. What voters see as campaign is not

The gatekeeping funnel: tracking a major PSA campaign from distribution through gatekeepers to target audience.

This article presents the gatekeeping funnel as a model of the process that a public service announcement (PSA) goes through from distribution until it reaches its target audience. Process measures such as bounceback postcards, the Broadcast Advertisers Report (BAR), and analysis of audience response are suggested as ways of monitoring this funneling process. The model is then applied to the National Cancer Institute's PSA campaign designed to promote cancer prevention awareness. Three waves of PSAs were distributed between March 1984 and May 1985. Two of these waves of PSAs were targeted to the general public and the third wave was targeted to black audiences. Bounceback postcards, BAR data, and the Cancer Information Service (CIS) call data exemplify the gatekeeping funnel model described in the article. When the messages were distributed, they had the potential of reaching 170 million adults with televisions. BAR data show that the gatekeeping function narrowed the number of people potentially exposed to the messages to 24 million, or 14% of the total. Yet only 144,000 people, or less than one-tenth of 1% responded to the messages by calling the CIS number and asking about cancer prevention. This analysis may help PSA campaign planners to develop more realistic expectations for message effects.