cAMP System Research Articles

‘Good fortune in the camps never lasted’: Gendered experience of carceral labour in the Soviet Union, 1930–1953

AbstractGendered order in the Soviet camp system shaped women inmates’ experiences of labour and factored in their survival. This article zooms in on the published memoirs of four women political prisoners who survived the Gulag and explores how they experienced and narrated carceral labour. It focuses on three types of labour taking place in the carceral setting – forced labour, care work and clandestine crafts – and investigates the gendered dynamics that surrounded each of these interrelated types of labour. Historically‐situated forms of women inmates’ constrained labour‐related agency, as the memoirs show, were diverse and not always limited to outright resistance or compliance.

Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate Signaling in Chronic Kidney Disease: Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Potentials.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by a steady decline in kidney function and affects roughly 10% of the world's population. This review focuses on the critical function of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signaling in CKD, specifically how it influences both protective and pathogenic processes in the kidney. cAMP, a critical secondary messenger, controls a variety of cellular functions, including transcription, metabolism, mitochondrial homeostasis, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. Its compartmentalization inside cellular microdomains ensures accurate signaling. In kidney physiology, cAMP is required for hormone-regulated activities, particularly in the collecting duct, where it promotes water reabsorption through vasopressin signaling. Several illnesses, including Fabry disease, renal cell carcinoma, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, Bartter syndrome, Liddle syndrome, diabetic nephropathy, autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, and renal tubular acidosis, have been linked to dysfunction in the cAMP system. Both cAMP analogs and phosphodiesterase inhibitors have the potential to improve kidney function and reduce kidney damage. Future research should focus on developing targeted PDE inhibitors for the treatment of CKD.

The centrality of railways in the German concentration camp system: Jewish slave labourers’ relocation experiences

This article scrutinises the role railways played in the existence of the German concentration camp system during the Third Reich era. Through the lens of Jewish slave labourers’ experiences, I argue that the numerous daily transports of prisoners from site to site were the backbone of the SS camp system. Grounded in survivor testimonies and Nazi administrative records, this paper traces the pathways of Dutch Jewish deportees on a single deportation transport to the concentration camps and addresses the impact of the frequent displacements upon the inmates. In general, the Germans decided which detainee was sent where, yet sometimes the victims could interfere in the selection process or evade relocation to another site. The maps in this article visualise the trajectories of several Dutch Jews; they demonstrate that prisoner relocation was a common phenomenon and reveal the vast distance that inmates covered by train.

Gendering the language of genocide

Abstract Exploring the Holocaust through a gendered lens, this article examines linguistic aggression against women in Nazi concentration camps. While extensive scholarship connects language to genocide, the imbrication between gender, language and genocide remains an under-researched subject. To further this discussion, I analyze female survivors’ memoirs to explore the processes of semantic deprecation through metaphorization. Relying on cognitive semantics (Lakoff and Johnson 1980), I concentrate on euphemistic and dysphemistic metaphors that construct women’s identities in terms of otherness, by means of zoosemic and reifying conceptualizations, among others. The sources under examination encompass Jewish survivors Liana Millu (2001); Gisella Perl (2019), and Anne-Lise Stern (2004), and non-Jewish resisters Margarete Buber-Neumann (2008); Wanda Półtawska (1989), and Germaine Tillion (1997). Considering the relationship between metaphorical language and perceived stereotypes about women and the feminine, and focusing on specific lexical items, I hope to unravel the nexus between linguistic aggression and patriarchal structures in the concentration camp system. I argue that metaphorization reinforced women’s inferior position and perpetuated gender stereotypes. I suggest that, paradoxically, this violence also triggered empowering processes of linguistic reappropriation, asserting the victims’ agency.

Traces of youth: reconstructing Hungarian women’s lives during the Holocaust

ABSTRACT This article reflects on archival, theoretical and methodological approaches to a set of prisoner registration cards from the Arolsen Archives. It argues that the cards make a unique contribution to the history of the Holocaust, which goes beyond their subjects’ experiences of the camp system. While historians have employed similar documents to chart the history of Jews in the concentration camps, this article suggests methodological ways for using the cards to tell a history of Jewish life, too. It reveals how the biographical nature of the cards provides personal information for those who would otherwise be dehumanized. In so doing, it builds on Dan Stone’s suggestion that it is possible to write a social history of the Holocaust using records from the Arolsen Archives, by identifying specific elements in the sources that achieve this. It also presents how digital humanities mapping tools can use data from the cards to visualize and analyse trends in their subjects’ lives and in the broader Jewish experience. Finally, it acknowledges the limits of the cards as sources and identifies how – when other sources are available – they can be combined with memoirs, testimonies and post-war documentation to illuminate archival silences and reveal personal agency. For many victims of the Holocaust, however, cards like these are the only remaining trace of their lives. As a result, this article suggests innovative approaches for using Arolsen Archive material to tell a social history of the Holocaust, thus challenging preconceptions about camp documentation.

PDE10A Mutation as an Emerging Cause of Childhood-Onset Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders: A Review of All Published Cases.

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzymes catalyze the breakdown of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), which act as intracellular second messengers for signal transduction pathways and modulate various processes in the central nervous system. Recent discoveries that mutations in genes encoding different PDEs, including PDE10A, are responsible for rare forms of chorea in children led to the recognition of an emerging role of PDEs in the field of pediatric movement disorders. A comprehensive literature review of all reported cases of PDE10A mutations in PubMed and Web of Science was performed in English. We included eight studies, describing 31 patients harboring a PDE10A mutation and exhibiting a hyperkinetic movement disorder with onset in infancy or childhood. Mutations in both GAF-A, GAF-B regulatory domains and outside the GAF domains of the PDE10A gene have been reported to cause hyperkinetic movement disorders. In general, patients with homozygous mutations in either GAF-A domain of PDE10A present with a more severe phenotype and at an earlier age but without any extensive abnormalities of the striata compared with patients with dominant variants in GAF-B domain, indicating that dominant and recessive mutations have different pathogenic mechanisms. PDE10A plays a key role in regulating control of striato-cortical movement. Comprehension of the molecular mechanisms within the cAMP and cGMP signaling systems caused by PDE10A mutations may inform novel therapeutic strategies that could alleviate symptoms in young patients affected by these rare movement disorders.

Preservation and heritage protection of the archaeological remains of prison and forced labour camps from the period of Nazi occupation and the Communist era in West Bohemia

This article presents research on the material remains of Nazi and post-war communist prison and forced labour camps in West Bohemia (1939-1945 and 1949-1961). The location of a sample of 35 camps was carried out using historical evidence and aerial images from the 1940s and 1950s. Non-invasive surveys and small-scale excavations of selected camps revealed the preservation of the archaeological record and its attributes, which are closely linked to the subsequent use of the sites. The spatial context showed an interconnection of the camp system with WWII as well as Cold War armament production. The heritage protection of these sites, the current state of memorials and the contemporary utilisation of the camp areas has also been examined. Research has shown the potential of neglected archaeological evidence of places of mass repressions, where crimes against humanity were committed by totalitarian regimes in the former Czechoslovakia. It has also revealed the disturbing fact that these sites have been disappearing at an alarming rate without any documentation, as a result of development and construction activities.

Stalinist Repression in the Soviet Union and the history of the Akmola women's camp in Kazakhstan (1937-1953)

Relevance. During the Soviet Union, the administrative and command group headed by I.V. Stalin established a totalitarian regime in society. The whole life of society was under control. Those who resisted were repressed, persecuted, imprisoned, and sentenced to death. In addition, Soviet Union created the Gulag system of camps. Some of them were located on the territory of Kazakhstan. The center was Karlag, located on the territory of Karaganda region. Purpose. One of its units was called the women's camp of traitors who sold their homeland in Akmola (ALJIR), which was called Point 26. This camp operated from 1937 to 1953. Thousands of innocent women were imprisoned there for a period of 3-8 years. In this camp, women of state and public figures known to the Soviet Union and well-known to Kazakhstan were detained. It was one of the most tragic pages in the history of mankind. Methodology. This topic has not been fully studied yet. Therefore, the authors consider it appropriate to provide information in the article on the basis of archival documents, memoirs and scientific research about the women's camp, which was previously located on the territory of Akmola region in Kazakhstan. In order to study the history of these repressions, it is necessary to take a comprehensive approach from a theoretical and methodological point of view. Conclusions. The history of the Akmola women's camp in Kazakhstan is a terrible period in the history of the world. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare joint scientific projects, write research papers and translate them into several languages of the world, make documentaries, show them to the people of the world, and present them.

The White Sea-Baltic Canal and the Moscow-Volga Canal: historiography of the construction

Historiography of the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal and the Moscow-Volga Canal, the activities of the White Sea-Baltic and Dmitrov camps are the subjects of the study. A review of studies of the large-scale GULAG system was carried out. In such researches the role of the Solovezkiy, Belbaltlag and Dmitlag is outlined as stages of the Soviet penitentiary system development. It reflects the transformation of the country's leadership views on the role of forced labor in the construction of the economy. Special attention was paid to the studies of the channel Army daily life, historical and cultural phenomena that appeared in the conceptual landscape of the country together with the construction of canals, cultural, educational, creative and ideological components of camp life. A historiographical review of the White Sea-Baltic Canal and the Moscow-Volga Canal construction, as well as the activities of the White Sea-Baltic and Dmitrov camps as an integral system, was not carried out before. But namely this approach to the topic seems logical due to the continuity of both the canal construction organizations themselves and the camp systems that provided the construction with labor (Solovetsky, Belomorsko-Baltiyskaya and Dmitrovskaya). A comprehensive study of these materials allowed us to take a fresh look at the subject of research and identify a number of urgent tasks for the historian of the GULAG system.

Освобождение Освенцима (Аушвиц-Биркенау) частями Красной армии 27 января 1945 г.: хроника событий по документам 60-й общевойсковой армии

The article deals with the offensive operations of the 60th Soviet Army during the Sandomir-Silesian operation. On January 27, 1945 the soldiers of this army liberated the Polish city of Auschwitz and the concentration camp "Auschwitz-Birkenau", some sites of which were located in close proximity to the city. A whole direction in historical science is devoted to the study of Hitler's crimes in the concentration camps created by the Nazis. The article develops this direction in the part of analyzing the information about how and as a result of what the largest camp in the system of concentration camps created by Nazis in Europe stopped its functioning. The main goal of the presented work is to reconstruct the chronology of combat operations of the 60th Army units in the second half of January 1945, to determine their specifics and results. The methodological basis of the study was the principle of historical objectivity with reliance on source analysis of the complex of archival materials of the 60th Soviet Army and the units included in it, the level of the army - division - regiment. The involved documents, some of which are introduced into scientific circulation for the first time, allowed to restore the course of the offensive operation in the direction of Auschwitz. It is shown that the enemy resisted stubbornly, going into counterattacks, supported by artillery. However, the enemy could not hold the positions and retreated with significant losses. The intensity of the fighting is evidenced by the fact of death on the outskirts of the city of the commander of the 472nd rifle regiment, which was on the edge of the offensive operation of the division. The analysis of the documents allowed us to draw a number of conclusions that develop our knowledge about the role of the Red Army in the liberation of both the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp and Poland as a whole. One of these should include an analysis of the combat composition of the 60th Army. Documents record the fact that more than half of the army was represented by new recruits. Among those conscripted in the second half of 1944, a significant percentage were mobilized from the western, recently liberated territories of the Ukrainian SSR, and the number of Ukrainians was almost identical to the number of Russians. The 100th Infantry Division, which took part in the direct fighting for Auschwitz, maintained the rapid pace of the offensive operation, which made it possible to liberate a significant part of the prisoners without giving the Nazis a chance to kill them. The documents of the 60th Army testify that most of the liberated from the total number of the camp contingent awaiting their fate were men of conscription age, citizens of the USSR. These documents record the fact that 3 thousand former prisoners of "Auschwitz-Birkenau" out of the total number of 5 thousand liberated were subsequently conscripted into the Soviet army and participated in the final defeat of Hitler's Germany and its allies.

"Perekovka" Newspaper of the White Sea-Baltic and Dmitrov Prison Camps: The Evolution of Prison Camp Press

The study analyzes the evolution of camp press through the example of the newspaper "Perekovka," published within the Soviet penitentiary system. Based on content analysis, the author reveals how the press was used to attempt to instill ideas of re-education and "reforging" of prisoners, turning their labor into a tool for building a new state. The article emphasizes the multifaceted and deep propagandistic role of camp newspapers, considering them as a means of mass information aimed at forming new "homo soveticus". Researcher analyzes how the content of the newspaper changed over different periods, reflecting transformations of the Soviet leadership's view on the goals of the penitentiary system. The work is enriched with examples from archival materials. The research methodology includes the use of the computerized content analysis program MAXQDA 2024 for processing large volumes of text. This approach allows for both quantitative and qualitative analysis of texts, providing an extensive set of features for coding, quantitative lexical analysis, and data visualization. The scientific relevance of the work lies in the comprehensive analysis of the camp newspaper "Perekovka" as an instrument of ideological influence, re-education, and motivation in Soviet camps. The study applies computerized content analysis methods to the complete collection of this publication for the first time, enabling not only the study of the content and evolution of this publication but also a deeper understanding of the motives of the camp system's leadership and the transformation of their views over time. The results of the research contribute to historical science, expanding perceptions of the complexity and multifaceted nature of the work of penitentiary media in the USSR and introducing new sources for further work.

Economic aspects of the effectiveness of forced labor in the Soviet camp system in the first half of the 1950s. (based on the Southern Kuzbass Corrective Labor Camp of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR materials).

Using the example of the Corrective Labor Camp of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR, some economic aspects of the effectiveness of forced labor in the Soviet camp system in the first half of the 50s are considered. The twentieth century particular attention is paid to the issue of expenses and income of the forced labor camp. Based on archival materials from the current archive of the Main Directorate of the Federal Penitentiary Service for the Kemerovo Region, a list of expenses is given, as well as the amount of money spent by the state on the maintenance of the prison population and the forced labor camp as a whole. Data on the costs required to maintain the camp economy are correlated with the amount of money for which the contingent produced marketable products annually. Information is provided on the amount of financial assistance received by the forced labor camp from the state budget and from the departmental unit under the jurisdiction of which it was located. The novelty of the research lies in the appeal to unpublished archival documents of the current archive of the Main Directorate of the Federal Penitentiary Service for the Kemerovo region and in local history topics that have not received widespread scientific coverage. The author comes to the conclusion that the income received from the labor activities of the prison population not only did not compensate for the costs of servicing the activities of the correctional labor camp, but also significantly exceeded them. Analysis of documentary material clearly showed that the use of forced labor was not cheap for the state, much less free. The state spent significant sums to organize camp production and maintain the prison population. The camp existed thanks to annually received government grants and subsidies.

미중경쟁과 동북아 지역질서 시나리오

How will the US-China competition reshape the regional order in Northeast Asia? This study analyzes scenarios of US-China competition, focusing on military and economic variables, and examines their implications for regional order. Economic interdependence and military deterrence are means of US-China competition. The balance of military deterrence will be the foremost factor defining the economic relationship between the US and China and neighboring countries. Under the condition of maintaining a deterrent balance, (1) if interdependence continues, competitive interdependence will be formed, but (2) the US or Chinese camp system can be structured along with decoupling. On the other hand, if the deterrent balance collapses, (3) conflictual readjustment of mutual dependence is inevitable, but (4) with decoupling, a Chinese sphere of influence may be formed. The scenario of the end state of the US-China competition provides two implications for Korea's national strategy as a middle country. A security strategy that contributes to the deterrence balance between the US and China is a key task for maintaining an uncomfortable peace. And in order to manage an interdependent system where competition and cooperation coexist, it is necessary to seek the role of a cooperation with in-between powers.

The ‘perimeter’ prisoners of Russian secret cities: the case of ZATO Krasnoyarsk-26

Since the 1930s, the Gulag system of labour camps was a driving force behind the main geopolitical projects of the Soviet Union, playing a critical role in mega-infrastructural projects to colonise hitherto unexploited territories. Among these was the network of secret cities built at the dawn of the Cold War. Whilst outwardly appearing like ordinary cities — with their green boulevards, central squares, and civic facilities — they were fully controlled and managed by the state; over decades elite scientists and technicians were brought together in these new settlements to work and live in total dedication to the Soviet atomic bomb project. These secret cities were known as Zakrytoye Administrativno-Territorial’noye Obrazovaniye [Closed Administrative-Territorial Formations], abbreviated as ZATOs. The research campuses, production and test zones, and civic and residential districts of the ZATOs were secured with walls, fences, watchtowers, and checkpoints. Beyond the secured perimeters, which still exist to regulate access to and from the outside world, lies the governmental and legislative apparatus which shaped the ZATOs’ economic, social, and psychological characteristics. For the inhabitants of ZATOs, the perimeter symbolised their connection to a higher purpose and would later evoke feelings of nostalgia and a sense of protection. Focusing primarily on one of these settlements, namely ZATO Krasnoyarsk-26, this paper links the story of the imprisoned labourers who constructed the ZATOs to that of the civilians who surrendered their liberty for a loftier cause. It will reveal a tight correlation between the Gulag infrastructure and the spatial arrangement of ZATOs showing how, in many aspects, ZATOs took on characteristics of carceral isolation, coercion, and immobility that are still relevant when addressing their contemporary condition.

Exacerbating effects of single-dose acute ethanol exposure on neuroinflammation and amelioration by GPR110 (ADGRF1) activation

BackgroundNeuroinflammation is a widely studied phenomenon underlying various neurodegenerative diseases. Earlier study demonstrated that pharmacological activation of GPR110 in both central and peripheral immune cells cooperatively ameliorates neuroinflammation caused by systemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration. Ethanol consumption has been associated with exacerbation of neurodegenerative and systemic inflammatory conditions. The goal of this study is to determine the effects of single-dose acute ethanol exposure and GPR110 activation on the neuro-inflammation mechanisms.MethodsFor in vivo studies, GPR110 wild type (WT) and knockout (KO) mice at 10–12 weeks of age were given an oral gavage of ethanol (3 g/kg) or maltose (5.4 g/kg) at 1–4 h prior to the injection of LPS (1 mg/kg, i.p.) followed by the GPR110 ligand, synaptamide (5 mg/kg). After 2–24 h, brains were collected for the analysis of gene expression by RT-PCR or protein expression by western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Microglial activation was assessed by western blotting and immunohistochemistry. For in vitro studies, microglia and peritoneal macrophages were isolated from adult WT mice and treated with 25 mM ethanol for 4 h and then with LPS (100 ng/ml) followed by 10 nM synaptamide for 2 h for gene expression and 12 h for protein analysis.ResultsSingle-dose exposure to ethanol by gavage before LPS injection upregulated pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in the brain and plasma. The LPS-induced Iba-1 expression in the brain was significantly higher after ethanol pretreatment in both WT and GPR110KO mice. GPR110 ligand decreased the mRNA and/or protein expression of these cytokines and Iba-1 in the WT but not in GPR110KO mice. In the isolated microglia and peritoneal macrophages, ethanol also exacerbated the LPS-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines which was mitigated at least partially by synaptamide. The expression of an inflammasome marker NLRP3 upregulated by LPS was further elevated with prior exposure to ethanol, especially in the brains of GPR110KO mice. Both ethanol and LPS reduced adenylate cyclase 8 mRNA expression which was reversed by the activation of GPR110. PDE4B expression at both mRNA and protein level in the brain increased after ethanol and LPS treatment while synaptamide suppressed its expression in a GPR110-dependent manner.ConclusionSingle-dose ethanol exposure exacerbated LPS-induced inflammatory responses. The GPR110 ligand synaptamide ameliorated this effect of ethanol by counteracting on the cAMP system, the common target for synaptamide and ethanol, and by regulating NLRP3 inflammasome.

Book review: Hikmet Karcˇic´, Torture, Humiliate, Kill: Inside the Bosnian Serb Camp System

Hikmet Karcˇic´, Torture, Humiliate, Kill: Inside the Bosnian Serb Camp System. Michigan Press, 2022, pp. 280, $85, ISBN: 9780472132966.

Gatekeepers of Extermination: SS Camp Physicians and Their Scope of Action.

The role of camp physicians of the Waffen-SS ("Armed SS," military branch of the Nazi Party's Schutzstaffel) in the implementation of the Holocaust has been the subject of limited research, even though they occupied a key position in the extermination process. From 1943 and 1944 onward, SS camp physicians made the individual medical decisions on whether each prisoner was fit for work or was immediately subjected to extermination, not only at the Auschwitz labor and extermination camp but also in pure labor camps like Buchenwald and Dachau. This was due to a functional change in the concentration camp system during World War II, where the selection of prisoners, which had previously been carried out by nonmedical SS camp staff, became a main task of the medical camp staff. The initiative to transfer sole responsibility for the selections came from the physicians themselves and was influenced by structural racism, sociobiologically oriented medical expertise, and pure economic rationality. It can be seen as a further radicalization of the decision making practiced until then in the murder of the sick. However, there was a far-reaching scope of action within the hierarchical structures of the Waffen-SS medical service on both the macro and micro levels. But what can this teach us for medical practice today? The historical experience of the Holocaust and Nazi medicine can provide a moral compass for physicians to be sensitive to the potential for abuse of power and ethical dilemmas inherent in medicine. Thus, the lessons from the Holocaust could be a starting point for reflecting on the value of human life in the modern economized and highly hierarchical medical sector.

Making a National Program National: The US Resettlement of Displaced Persons After World War II

The end of the Second World War in Europe left millions of people out of place, including Jews left in concentration camps, forced laborers in the huge Nazi work camp system, and many Germans as well. For roughly a million of these people, no immediate return to their home countries was possible, and the United States—although very slowly—ultimately resettled the largest number of them. One important thread in these US efforts was the intent to make the resettlement program a fully national one. Those efforts are seen most clearly in states that would not at that time have been obvious destinations for displaced persons, or at least not obvious destinations for relatively large numbers of them. This article examines three states—North Dakota, Minnesota, and Mississippi. The resettlement program may not have been fully coherent in policy goals, including veering sharply at times from the original humanitarian intent. Yet the program worked well on its own terms and set a new standard for state and local involvement in resettlement that has continued through the major surges of refugees to the United States since then, including recent efforts on behalf of those from Afghanistan and Ukraine. This US experience of refugee resettlement through a flexible federal/state/local system, with strong involvement from both public and private sectors, remains a crucial experiment in resettlement and a reminder of the ways refugee and immigration policies and programs are intertwined.

DARPP-32 cells and neuropil define striosomal system and isolated matrix cells in human striatum.

The dorsal striatum forms a central node of the basal ganglia interconnecting the neocortex and thalamus with circuits modulating mood and movement. Striatal projection neurons (SPNs) include relatively intermixed populations expressing D1-type or D2-type dopamine receptors (dSPNs and iSPNs) that give rise to the direct (D1) and indirect (D2) output systems of the basal ganglia. Overlaid on this organization is a compartmental organization, in which a labyrinthine system of striosomes made up of sequestered SPNs is embedded within the larger striatal matrix. Striosomal SPNs also include D1-SPNs and D2-SPNs, but they can be distinguished from matrix SPNs by many neurochemical markers. In the rodent striatum the key signaling molecule, DARPP-32, is a exception to these compartmental expression patterns, thought to befit its functions through opposite actions in both D1- and D2-expressing SPNs. We demonstrate here, however, that in the dorsal human striatum, DARPP-32 is concentrated in the neuropil and SPNs of striosomes, especially in the caudate nucleus and dorsomedial putamen, relative to the matrix neuropil in these regions. The generally DARPP-32-poor matrix contains scattered DARPP-32-positive cells. DARPP-32 cell bodies in both compartments proved negative for conventional intraneuronal markers. These findings raise the potential for specialized DARPP-32 expression in the human striosomal system and in a set of DARPP-32-positive neurons in the matrix. If DARPP-32 immunohistochemical positivity predicts differential functional DARPP-32 activity, then the distributions demonstrated here could render striosomes and dispersed matrix cells susceptible to differential signaling through cAMP and other signaling systems in health and disease. DARPP-32 is highly concentrated in cells and neuropil of striosomes in post-mortem human brain tissue, particularly in the dorsal caudate nucleus. Scattered DARPP-32-positive cells are found in the human striatal matrix. Calbindin and DARPP-32 do not colocalize within every spiny projection neuron in the dorsal human caudate nucleus.

Trudna definicja „obozu koncentracyjnego”

This paper discusses only the systems of concentration camps, omitting how individual camps functioned. The analysis starts with late 19th-century Spanish camps in Cuba and ends with late 20th-century camps for Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first part of the paper discusses the problems of defining a concentration camp and proposes an original definition. The second part focuses on the victims, including their position within the camp hierarchy. The third part shows the practice of history politics based on the system of camps to which Silesians and other groups were sent after the war. Consequently, the paper offers an original definition of a concentration camp that is missing from many scholarly papers, and discusses Polish complications in history politics related to avoiding the term “Polish concentration camps”. The interpretation was based on the hermeneutics of academic literature and multimodal discourse analysis, especially as it pertains to post-war camps.