cAMP-binding Domain Research Articles

The N-terminal Capping Propensities of the D-helix Modulate the Allosteric Activation of the Escherichia coli cAMP Receptor Protein

Transduction of biological signals at the molecular level involves the activation and/or inhibition of allosteric proteins. In the transcription factor cAMP receptor protein (CRP) from Escherichia coli, the allosteric activation, or apo-holo transition, involves rigid body motions of domains and structural rearrangements within the hinge region connecting the cAMP- and DNA-binding domains. During this apo-holo transition, residue 138 is converted as part of the elongated D-helix to the position of the N-terminal capping residue of a shorter D-helix. The goal of the current study is to elucidate the role of residue 138 in modulating the allostery between cAMP and DNA binding. By systematically mutating residue 138, we found that mutants with higher N-terminal capping propensities lead to increased cooperativity of cAMP binding and a concomitant increase in affinity for lac-DNA. Furthermore, mutants with higher N-terminal capping propensity correlate with properties characteristic of holo-CRP, particularly, increase in protein structural dynamics. Overall, our results provide a quantitative characterization of the role of residue 138 in the isomerization equilibrium between the apo and holo forms of CRP, and in turn the thermodynamic underpin to the molecular model of allostery revealed by the high resolution structural studies.

Normal-Mode-Analysis-Guided Investigation of Crucial Intersubunit Contacts in the cAMP-Dependent Gating in HCN Channels

Protein structures define a complex network of atomic interactions in three dimensions. Direct visualization of the structure and analysis of the interaction potential energy are not straightforward approaches to pinpoint the atomic contacts that are crucial for protein function. We used the tetrameric hyperpolarization-activated cAMP-regulated (HCN) channel as a model system to study the intersubunit contacts in cAMP-dependent gating. To obtain a systematic survey of the contacts between each pair of residues, we used normal-mode analysis, a computational approach for studying protein dynamics, and constructed the covariance matrix for C-α atoms. The significant contacts revealed by covariance analysis were further investigated by means of mutagenesis and functional assays. Among the mutant channels that show phenotypes different from those of the wild-type, we focused on two mutant channels that express opposite changes in cAMP-dependent gating. Subsequent biochemical assays on isolated C-terminal fragments, including the cAMP binding domain, revealed only minimal effects on cAMP binding, suggesting the necessity of interpreting the cAMP-dependent allosteric regulation at the whole-channel level. For this purpose, we applied the patch-clamp fluorometry technique and observed correlated changes in the dynamic, state-dependent cAMP binding in the mutant channels. This study not only provides further understanding of the intersubunit contacts in allosteric coupling in the HCN channel, it also illustrates an effective strategy for delineating important atomic contacts within a structure.

PRKAR1AMutation Affecting cAMP-Mediated G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling in a Patient with Acrodysostosis and Hormone Resistance

Acrodysostosis is a rare autosomal dominant disorder characterized by short stature, peculiar facial appearance with nasal hypoplasia, and short metacarpotarsals and phalanges with cone-shaped epiphyses. Recently, mutations of PRKAR1A and PDE4D downstream of GNAS on the cAMP-mediated G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling cascade have been identified in acrodysostosis with and without hormone resistance, although functional studies have been performed only for p.R368X of PRKAR1A. Our objective was to report a novel PRKAR1A mutation and its functional consequence in a Japanese female patient with acrodysostosis and hormone resistance. This patient had acrodysostosis-compatible clinical features such as short stature and brachydactyly and mildly elevated serum PTH and TSH values. Although no abnormality was detected in GNAS and PDE4D, a novel de novo heterozygous missense mutation (p.T239A) was identified at the cAMP-binding domain A of PRKAR1A. Western blot analysis using primary antibodies for the phosphorylated cAMP-responsive element (CRE)-binding protein showed markedly reduced CRE-binding protein phosphorylation in the forskolin-stimulated lymphoblastoid cell lines of this patient. CRE-luciferase reporter assays indicated significantly impaired response of protein kinase A to cAMP in the HEK293 cells expressing the mutant p.T239A protein. The results indicate that acrodysostosis with hormone resistance is caused by a heterozygous mutation at the cAMP-binding domain A of PRKAR1A because of impaired cAMP-mediated GPCR signaling. Because GNAS, PRKAR1A, and PDE4D are involved in the GPCR signal transduction cascade and have some different characters, this would explain the phenotypic similarity and difference in patients with GNAS, PRKAR1A, and PDE4D mutations.

Inner activation gate in S6 contributes to the state-dependent binding of cAMP in full-length HCN2 channel

Recently, applications of the patch-clamp fluorometry (PCF) technique in studies of cyclic nucleotide–gated (CNG) and hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide–regulated (HCN) channels have provided direct evidence for the long-held notion that ligands preferably bind to and stabilize these channels in an open state. This state-dependent ligand–channel interaction involves contributions from not only the ligand-binding domain but also other discrete structural elements within the channel protein. This insight led us to investigate whether the pore of the HCN channel plays a role in the ligand–whole channel interaction. We used three well-characterized HCN channel blockers to probe the ion-conducting passage. The PCF technique was used to simultaneously monitor channel activity and cAMP binding. Two ionic blockers, Cs+ and Mg2+, effectively block channel conductance but have no obvious effect on cAMP binding. Surprisingly, ZD7288, an open channel blocker specific for HCN channels, significantly reduces the activity-dependent increase in cAMP binding. Independent biochemical assays exclude any nonspecific interaction between ZD7288 and isolated cAMP-binding domain. Because ZD7228 interacts with the inner pore region, where the activation gate is presumably located, we did an alanine scanning of the intracellular end of S6, from T426 to A435. Mutations of three residues, T426, M430, and H434, which are located at regular intervals on the S6 α-helix, enhance cAMP binding. In contrast, mutations of two residues in close proximity, F431A and I432A, dampen the response. Our results demonstrate that movements of the structural elements near the activation gate directly affect ligand binding affinity, which is a simple mechanistic explanation that could be applied to the interpretation of ligand gating in general.

Resolving the structure of Bcy1, the Regulatory Subunit of Yeast Protein Kinase A

The major receptor for cAMP signaling in eukaryotes is the regulatory subunit (R) of protein kinase A. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has one R (Bcy1). R subunits are homodimers comprising an N‐terminal dimerization/docking domain (D/D), an inhibitory hinge region, and two tandem cAMP binding domains (CNB) at the C‐terminus. The crystal structure of Bcy1(168–416) has been solved. The relative orientation of the two CNB domains is different from RIα and RIIβ. We have analyzed the solution structure of Bcy1 whole molecule and of a monomer (Δ140)Bcy1 by small‐angle x‐ray scattering (SAXS). The Rg (gyration radius) and dmax (derived from the P(r) function) of the molecules were determined. Both structures were modeled ab initio using the DAMMIN program. The resulting structure of (Δ 140)Bcy1 compares very favorably with the crystal structure, thus confirming the particular relative orientation of the CNB domains The structure of the whole homodimer is predicted to be different from RI and RII. The N terminus of Bcy1 was modeled by homology using Swiss Model and further minimization with the GROMACS package. It shares with its counterparts the residues important for dimerization; however the exposed surface, that should interact with anchoring proteins (not described yet in yeast), has characteristics of its own.

The Projection Analysis of NMR Chemical Shifts Reveals Extended EPAC Autoinhibition Determinants

EPAC is a cAMP-dependent guanine nucleotide exchange factor that serves as a prototypical molecular switch for the regulation of essential cellular processes. Although EPAC activation by cAMP has been extensively investigated, the mechanism of EPAC autoinhibition is still not fully understood. The steric clash between the side chains of two conserved residues, L273 and F300 in EPAC1, has been previously shown to oppose the inactive-to-active conformational transition in the absence of cAMP. However, it has also been hypothesized that autoinhibition is assisted by entropic losses caused by quenching of dynamics that occurs if the inactive-to-active transition takes place in the absence of cAMP. Here, we test this hypothesis through the comparative NMR analysis of several EPAC1 mutants that target different allosteric sites of the cAMP-binding domain (CBD). Using what to our knowledge is a novel projection analysis of NMR chemical shifts to probe the effect of the mutations on the autoinhibition equilibrium of the CBD, we find that whenever the apo/active state is stabilized relative to the apo/inactive state, dynamics are consistently quenched in a conserved loop (β2-β3) and helix (α5) of the CBD. Overall, our results point to the presence of conserved and nondegenerate determinants of CBD autoinhibition that extends beyond the originally proposed L273/F300 residue pair, suggesting that complete activation necessitates the simultaneous suppression of multiple autoinhibitory mechanisms, which in turn confers added specificity for the cAMP allosteric effector.

The Many Conformations of Epac2: A Cyclic-AMP Sensing Cellular Regulator Studied Via Solution X-Ray Scattering (SAXS) & Hydrogen Deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry

Epac2 is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor which is directly activated by cAMP. According to the model of Epac activation, a localized “hinge” motion is a major change in the Epac structure upon cAMP binding. in this study, we test the functional importance of hinge bending for Epac activation by targeted mutagenesis. We show that substitution of the conserved residue phenylalanine 435 by glycine facilitates the hinge bending, and is constitutively active, while tryptophan, impedes the hinge motion and results in a dramatic decrease in Epac2 catalytic activity. Structural parameters for wild type Epac and two of its mutants determined by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) further confirm the importance of hinge motion in Epac activation. in addition, peptide amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (DXMS) was used to probe the solution structural and conformational dynamics of full length Epac2. Our study also suggests that the side-chain size of the amino acid at the position 435 is a key to Epac functioning. It seems that phenylalanine at this position has the optimal size to prevent “hinge” bending and keep Epac closed and inactive in the absence of cAMP while still allowing the proper hinge motion for full Epac activation in the presence of cAMP. The DXMS results also support this mechanism in which cAMP-induced Epac2 activation is mediated by a major hinge motion centered on the C-terminus of the second cAMP binding domain. These results suggest that in addition to relieving the steric hindrance imposed upon the catalytic lobe by the regulatory lobe, cAMP may also be an allosteric modulator directly affecting the interaction between Epac2 and RAP1.

Direct cAMP Binding and PKA Phosphorylation Share a Common Gating Mechanism in HCN4 Channels

Sympathetic regulation of HCN4 channels can occur via two cAMP-dependent pathways: either direct binding of cAMP to a cyclic nucleotide binding domain, or PKA phosphorylation of the distal C terminus. Here, we have investigated the energetic interactions between these two modulatory mechanisms. cDNA encoding wildtype or mutant mouse HCN4 channels was expressed in HEK293 cells, and the voltage-dependence of channel activation was determined in whole cell voltage clamp experiments. Intracellular dialysis of either PKA (20 U/ml) or cAMP (1 mM) shifted the activation midpoint (V1/2) of wild type HCN4 channels by ∼10 mV to more depolarized voltages. No additional shift was produced when both cAMP and PKA were introduced together, suggesting that the two modulators share a common final pathway in channel activation. To characterize further the independent effects of each modulator, we used PKA-insensitive (HCN4-Cx4) and cAMP-insensitive (HCN4-R669Q) mutant HCN4 channels. In PKA-insensitive HCN4-Cx4 channels, cAMP significantly shifted the voltage-dependence to more positive potentials, similar to its effect in wildtype HCN4 channels. This result demonstrates that cAMP modulation of HCN4 does not require PKA phosphorylation of the distal C-terminus. In contrast, PKA had no effect on the voltage-dependence of activation in the cAMP-insensitive HCN4-R669Q channels. Taken together, the data are consistent with a model in which direct binding of cAMP and PKA phosphorylation share a final common gating mechanism, however PKA modulation of HCN4 requires an unmodified cAMP binding domain.

Role of Dynamics in the Autoinhibition and Activation of the Exchange Protein Directly Activated by Cyclic AMP (EPAC)

The exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC) is a key receptor of cAMP in eukaryotes and controls critical signaling pathways. Currently, no residue resolution information is available on the full-length EPAC dynamics, which are known to be pivotal determinants of allostery. In addition, no information is presently available on the intermediates for the classical induced fit and conformational selection activation pathways. Here these questions are addressed through molecular dynamics simulations on five key states along the thermodynamic cycle for the cAMP-dependent activation of a fully functional construct of EPAC2, which includes the cAMP-binding domain and the integral catalytic region. The simulations are not only validated by the agreement with the experimental trends in cAMP-binding domain dynamics determined by NMR, but they also reveal unanticipated dynamic attributes, rationalizing previously unexplained aspects of EPAC activation and autoinhibition. Specifically, the simulations show that cAMP binding causes an extensive perturbation of dynamics in the distal catalytic region, assisting the recognition of the Rap1b substrate. In addition, analysis of the activation intermediates points to a possible hybrid mechanism of EPAC allostery incorporating elements of both the induced fit and conformational selection models. In this mechanism an entropy compensation strategy results in a low free-energy pathway of activation. Furthermore, the simulations indicate that the autoinhibitory interactions of EPAC are more dynamic than previously anticipated, leading to a revised model of autoinhibition in which dynamics fine tune the stability of the autoinhibited state, optimally sensitizing it to cAMP while avoiding constitutive activation.

PKA: assembly of dynamic macromolecular signaling

Although we have learned a great deal about the protein kinase superfamily from our structure/function studies of the free PKA catalytic (C) subunit and the free cAMP-bound regulatory (R) subunits, we did not understand how the C-subunit was inhibited in the holoenzyme complexes, nor did we understand at the molecular level how the holoenzymes were activated by cAMP. There are four functionally non-redundant R-subunits (RIα, RIβ, RIIα, and RIIβ) and each is assembled as a dimer. The N-terminal dimerization/docking (D/D) is fllowed by a flexible linker and two tandem camp binding domains. The D/D domain also serves as the docking site for A Kinase Anchoring Proteins (AKAPs) which serve as scaffolds that target the PKA holoenzyme to specific sites in the cell in close proximity to specific substrates. Isoform diversity of the R-subunits is a major mechanism for achieving specificity in PKA signaling. We describe here, for the first time, how PKA is assembled into diverse tetrameric holoenzymes and this allows us to begin to fully appreciate the role of the regulatory subunits in creating novel tetramers that are then recruited in unique ways to supramolecular complexes. How these scaffolds are then assembled as part of polyvalent PKA signaling scaffolds is our next challenge. By showing how the RII subunit is anchored to a PDZ domain through a dual specific AKAP, DAKAP2, we are beginning to understand how larger scaffolds are assembled and anchored to the C-termini of ion transporters. We are also exploring PKA signaling scaffolds at the mitochondria.

An Ion-insensitive cAMP Biosensor for Long Term Quantitative Ratiometric Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) Measurements under Variable Physiological Conditions

Ratiometric measurements with FRET-based biosensors in living cells using a single fluorescence excitation wavelength are often affected by a significant ion sensitivity and the aggregation behavior of the FRET pair. This is an important problem for quantitative approaches. Here we report on the influence of physiological ion concentration changes on quantitative ratiometric measurements by comparing different FRET pairs for a cAMP-detecting biosensor. We exchanged the enhanced CFP/enhanced YFP FRET pair of an established Epac1-based biosensor by the fluorophores mCerulean/mCitrine. In the case of enhanced CFP/enhanced YFP, we showed that changes in proton, and (to a lesser extent) chloride ion concentrations result in incorrect ratiometric FRET signals, which may exceed the dynamic range of the biosensor. Calcium ions have no direct, but an indirect pH-driven effect by mobilizing protons. These ion dependences were greatly eliminated when mCerulean/mCitrine fluorophores were used. For such advanced FRET pairs the biosensor is less sensitive to changes in ion concentration and allows consistent cAMP concentration measurements under different physiological conditions, as occur in metabolically active cells. In addition, we verified that the described FRET pair exchange increased the dynamic range of the FRET efficiency response. The time window for stable experimental conditions was also prolonged by a faster biosensor expression rate in transfected cells and a greatly reduced tendency to aggregate, which reduces cytotoxicity. These properties were verified in functional tests in single cells co-expressing the biosensor and the 5-HT(1A) receptor.

Mechanism of Intracellular cAMP Sensor Epac2 Activation: cAMP-INDUCED CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IDENTIFIED BY AMIDE HYDROGEN/DEUTERIUM EXCHANGE MASS SPECTROMETRY (DXMS)

Epac2, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, regulates a wide variety of intracellular processes in response to second messenger cAMP. In this study, we have used peptide amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to probe the solution structural and conformational dynamics of full-length Epac2 in the presence and absence of cAMP. The results support a mechanism in which cAMP-induced Epac2 activation is mediated by a major hinge motion centered on the C terminus of the second cAMP binding domain. This conformational change realigns the regulatory components of Epac2 away from the catalytic core, making the later available for effector binding. Furthermore, the interface between the first and second cAMP binding domains is highly dynamic, providing an explanation of how cAMP gains access to the ligand binding sites that, in the crystal structure, are seen to be mutually occluded by the other cAMP binding domain. Moreover, cAMP also induces conformational changes at the ionic latch/hairpin structure, which is directly involved in RAP1 binding. These results suggest that in addition to relieving the steric hindrance imposed upon the catalytic lobe by the regulatory lobe, cAMP may also be an allosteric modulator directly affecting the interaction between Epac2 and RAP1. Finally, cAMP binding also induces significant conformational changes in the dishevelled/Egl/pleckstrin (DEP) domain, a conserved structural motif that, although missing from the active Epac2 crystal structure, is important for Epac subcellular targeting and in vivo functions.

The cAMP-responsive Rap1 Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor, Epac, Induces Smooth Muscle Relaxation by Down-regulation of RhoA Activity

Agonist activation of the small GTPase, RhoA, and its effector Rho kinase leads to down-regulation of smooth muscle (SM) myosin light chain phosphatase activity, an increase in myosin light chain (RLC(20)) phosphorylation and force. Cyclic nucleotides can reverse this process. We report a new mechanism of cAMP-mediated relaxation through Epac, a GTP exchange factor for the small GTPase Rap1 resulting in an increase in Rap1 activity and suppression of RhoA activity. An Epac-selective cAMP analog, 8-pCPT-2'-O-Me-cAMP ("007"), significantly reduced agonist-induced contractile force, RLC(20), and myosin light chain phosphatase phosphorylation in both intact and permeabilized vascular, gut, and airway SMs independently of PKA and PKG. The vasodilator PGI(2) analog, cicaprost, increased Rap1 activity and decreased RhoA activity in intact SMs. Forskolin, phosphodiesterase inhibitor isobutylmethylxanthine, and isoproterenol also significantly increased Rap1-GTP in rat aortic SM cells. The PKA inhibitor H89 was without effect on the 007-induced increase in Rap1-GTP. Lysophosphatidic acid-induced RhoA activity was reduced by treatment with 007 in WT but not Rap1B null fibroblasts, consistent with Epac signaling through Rap1B to down-regulate RhoA activity. Isoproterenol-induced increase in Rap1 activity was inhibited by silencing Epac1 in rat aortic SM cells. Evidence is presented that cooperative cAMP activation of PKA and Epac contribute to relaxation of SM. Our findings demonstrate a cAMP-mediated signaling mechanism whereby activation of Epac results in a PKA-independent, Rap1-dependent Ca(2+) desensitization of force in SM through down-regulation of RhoA activity. Cyclic AMP inhibition of RhoA is mediated through activation of both Epac and PKA.

Cell-Type Specific Expression of a Dominant Negative PKA Mutation in Mice

We employed the Cre recombinase/loxP system to create a mouse line in which PKA activity can be inhibited in any cell-type that expresses Cre recombinase. The mouse line carries a mutant Prkar1a allele encoding a glycine to aspartate substitution at position 324 in the carboxy-terminal cAMP-binding domain (site B). This mutation produces a dominant negative RIα regulatory subunit (RIαB) and leads to inhibition of PKA activity. Insertion of a loxP-flanked neomycin cassette in the intron preceding the site B mutation prevents expression of the mutant RIαB allele until Cre-mediated excision of the cassette occurs. Embryonic stem cells expressing RIαB demonstrated a reduction in PKA activity and inhibition of cAMP-responsive gene expression. Mice expressing RIαB in hepatocytes exhibited reduced PKA activity, normal fasting induced gene expression, and enhanced glucose disposal. Activation of the RIαB allele in vivo provides a novel system for the analysis of PKA function in physiology.

Mapping allostery through the covariance analysis of NMR chemical shifts

Allostery is a fundamental mechanism of regulation in biology. The residues at the end points of long-range allosteric perturbations are commonly identified by the comparative analyses of structures and dynamics in apo and effector-bound states. However, the networks of interactions mediating the propagation of allosteric signals between the end points often remain elusive. Here we show that the covariance analysis of NMR chemical shift changes caused by a set of covalently modified analogs of the allosteric effector (i.e., agonists and antagonists) reveals extended networks of coupled residues. Unexpectedly, such networks reach not only sites subject to effector-dependent structural variations, but also regions that are controlled by dynamically driven allostery. In these regions the allosteric signal is propagated mainly by dynamic rather than structural modulations, which result in subtle but highly correlated chemical shift variations. The proposed chemical shift covariance analysis (CHESCA) identifies interresidue correlations based on the combination of agglomerative clustering (AC) and singular value decomposition (SVD). AC results in dendrograms that define functional clusters of coupled residues, while SVD generates score plots that provide a residue-specific dissection of the contributions to binding and allostery. The CHESCA approach was validated by applying it to the cAMP-binding domain of the exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC) and the CHESCA results are in full agreement with independent mutational data on EPAC activation. Overall, CHESCA is a generally applicable method that utilizes a selected chemical library of effector analogs to quantitatively decode the binding and allosteric information content embedded in chemical shift changes.

Realizing the Allosteric Potential of the Tetrameric Protein Kinase A RIα Holoenzyme

PKA holoenzymes containing two catalytic (C) subunits and a regulatory (R) subunit dimer are activated cooperatively by cAMP. While cooperativity involves the two tandem cAMP binding domains in each R-subunit, additional cooperativity is associated with the tetramer. Of critical importance is the flexible linker in R that contains an inhibitor site (IS). While the IS becomes ordered in the R:C heterodimer, the overall conformation of the tetramer is mediated largely by the N-Linker that connects theD/D domain to the IS. To understand how the N-Linker contributes to assembly of tetrameric holoenzymes, we engineered a monomeric RIα that contains most of the N-Linker, RIα(73-244), and crystallized a holoenzyme complex. Part of the N-linker is now ordered by interactions with a symmetry-related dimer. This complex of two symmetry-related dimers forms a tetramer that reveals novel mechanisms for allosteric regulation and has many features associated with full-length holoenzyme. A model of the tetrameric holoenzyme, based on this structure, is consistent with previous small angle X-ray and neutron scattering data, and is validated with new SAXS data and with an RIα mutation localized to a novel interface unique to the tetramer.

Phosphodiesterases Catalyze Hydrolysis of cAMP-bound to Regulatory Subunit of Protein Kinase A and Mediate Signal Termination

Although extensive structural and biochemical studies have provided molecular insights into the mechanism of cAMP-dependent activation of protein kinase A (PKA), little is known about signal termination and the role of phosphodiesterases (PDEs) in regulatory feedback. In this study we describe a novel mode of protein kinase A-anchoring protein (AKAP)-independent feedback regulation between a specific PDE, RegA and the PKA regulatory (RIα) subunit, where RIα functions as an activator of PDE catalysis. Our results indicate that RegA, in addition to its well-known role as a PDE for bulk cAMP in solution, is also capable of hydrolyzing cAMP-bound to RIα. Furthermore our results indicate that binding of RIα activates PDE catalysis several fold demonstrating a dual function of RIα, both as an inhibitor of the PKA catalytic (C) subunit and as an activator for PDEs. Deletion mutagenesis has localized the sites of interaction to one of the cAMP-binding domains of RIα and the catalytic PDE domain of RegA whereas amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry has revealed that the cAMP-binding site (phosphate binding cassette) along with proximal regions important for relaying allosteric changes mediated by cAMP, are important for interactions with the PDE catalytic domain of RegA. These sites of interactions together with measurements of cAMP dissociation rates demonstrate that binding of RegA facilitates dissociation of cAMP followed by hydrolysis of the released cAMP to 5'AMP. cAMP-free RIα generated as an end product remains bound to RegA. The PKA C-subunit then displaces RegA and reassociates with cAMP-free RIα to regenerate the inactive PKA holoenzyme thereby completing the termination step of cAMP signaling. These results reveal a novel mode of regulatory feedback between PDEs and RIα that has important consequences for PKA regulation and cAMP signal termination.

Ratiometric Bioluminescence Indicators for Monitoring Cyclic Adenosine 3′,5′-Monophosphate in Live Cells Based on Luciferase-Fragment Complementation

Bioluminescent indicators for cyclic 3',5'-monophosphate AMP (cAMP) are powerful tools for noninvasive detection with high sensitivity. However, the absolute photon counts are affected substantially by adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and d-luciferin concentrations, limiting temporal analysis in live cells. This report describes a genetically encoded bioluminescent indicator for detecting intracellular cAMP based on complementation of split fragments of two-color luciferase mutants originated from click beetles. A cAMP binding domain of protein kinase A was connected with an engineered carboxy-terminal fragment of luciferase, of which ends were connected with amino-terminal fragments of green luciferase and red luciferase. We demonstrated that the ratio of green to red bioluminescence intensities was less influenced by the changes of ATP and d-luciferin concentrations. We also showed an applicability of the bioluminescent indicator for time-course and quantitative assessments of intracellular cAMP in living cells and mice. The bioluminescent indicator will enable quantitative analysis and imaging of spatiotemporal dynamics of cAMP in opaque and autofluorescent living subjects.

Cyclic AMP- and (Rp)-cAMPS-induced Conformational Changes in a Complex of the Catalytic and Regulatory (RIα) Subunits of Cyclic AMP-dependent Protein Kinase

We took a discovery approach to explore the actions of cAMP and two of its analogs, one a cAMP mimic ((S(p))-adenosine cyclic 3':5'-monophosphorothioate ((S(p))-cAMPS)) and the other a diastereoisomeric antagonist ((R(p))-cAMPS), on a model system of the type Iα cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase holoenzyme, RIα(91-244)·C-subunit, by using fluorescence spectroscopy and amide H/(2)H exchange mass spectrometry. Specifically, for the fluorescence experiments, fluorescein maleimide was conjugated to three cysteine single residue substitution mutants, R92C, T104C, and R239C, of RIα(91-244), and the effects of cAMP, (S(p))-cAMPS, and (R(p))-cAMPS on the kinetics of R-C binding and the time-resolved anisotropy of the reporter group at each conjugation site were measured. For the amide exchange experiments, ESI-TOF mass spectrometry with pepsin proteolytic fragmentation was used to assess the effects of (R(p))-cAMPS on amide exchange of the RIα(91-244)·C-subunit complex. We found that cAMP and its mimic perturbed at least parts of the C-subunit interaction Sites 2 and 3 but probably not Site 1 via reduced interactions of the linker region and αC of RIα(91-244). Surprisingly, (R(p))-cAMPS not only increased the affinity of RIα(91-244) toward the C-subunit by 5-fold but also produced long range effects that propagated through both the C- and R-subunits to produce limited unfolding and/or enhanced conformational flexibility. This combination of effects is consistent with (R(p))-cAMPS acting by enhancing the internal entropy of the R·C complex. Finally, the (R(p))-cAMPS-induced increase in affinity of RIα(91-244) toward the C-subunit indicates that (R(p))-cAMPS is better described as an inverse agonist because it decreases the fractional dissociation of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase holoenzyme and in turn its basal activity.

Can biologic pacemakers respond to physiologic emotional arousal?

Can biologic pacemakers respond to physiologic emotional arousal?