Calophyllum Inophyllum Oil Research Articles

Potential Use Calophyllum inophyllum Oil as Biodiesel Feedstock: A Scientometric Analysis and Review of the Production Process

Potential Use Calophyllum inophyllum Oil as Biodiesel Feedstock: A Scientometric Analysis and Review of the Production Process

Formulation and evaluation of bio-grease from the blend of chemically modified rice bran oil and Calophyllum inophyllum oil

Vegetable oils are a highly promising alternative to produce various lubricants, owing to their biodegradability and eco-friendliness. In comparison to mineral oil, these oils possess a higher flash point and viscosity index, along with superior lubricating properties. Additionally, most of the vegetable oils are easily accessible in local markets in India. However, their industrial application is limited by poor thermal and oxidative stability, which can be addressed through chemical modification, the addition of appropriate additives, or by blending these oils. Greases, characterized by their semi-solid consistency, are widely used lubricants. Most of the grease production is based on mineral oils as base oil and lithium soap as a thickener. These materials are not only non-biodegradable but also scarce and have health implications. Consequently, biodegradable grease represents an eco-friendly and healthy alternative. Grease made using vegetable oils with the required properties has the potential to bring about revolutionary changes. The present work focuses on the feasibility of using chemically modified blended rice bran oil (RBO) and Calophyllum inophyllum oil (CIO) as a bio-lubricant. The oils undergo a two-step modification process, involving a transesterification reaction followed by epoxidation. Significant improvements have been observed in the chemical properties (acid, peroxide, and iodine values) of transesterified epoxidized rice bran oil Calophyllum inophyllum oil mixture–50:50 (ETRCIO) when compared with Unmodified Rice bran oil Calophyllum inophyllum oil mixture–50:50 (RCIO). The acid value, peroxide value, and iodine value improved by 91.66%, 87.08%, and 15.78% respectively. The rheological, tribological, and chemical properties of the blended samples have been evaluated and compared to pure oils using American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and Indian Standards (IS). Additionally, ETRCIO was used to develop a bio-grease, and its tribological properties were extensively analyzed. The mean coefficient of friction (COF) and wear scar diameter (WSD) of the ETRCIO grease sample improved by 10.20% and 29.32% respectively when compared with that of commercially available grease. These findings indicate that the ETRCIO bio-grease exhibits superior tribological properties in comparison to commercially available grease.

Temperature Dependent Solubility and Catalytic behaviour of K2CO3 and Na2CO3 during Transesterification of Calophyllum Inophyllum Oil and its Fuel Properties

AbstractThe current work is focused on the solubility and catalytic behaviour of K2CO3, and Na2CO3 during the synthesis of biodiesel from Calophyllum Inophyllum oil (CIO) in methanol. The solubility of K2CO3, and Na2CO3 in methanol is not straight forward, as both form their respective methoxides and bicarbonates on solubility in methanol. Therefore to understand catalytic behaviour of both carbonates, it is essential to estimate sodium and potassium methoxides, and bicarbonates formed at different temperatures. In this regard, the catalytic behaviour of both carbonates was studied between 50 °C to 65 °C. Therefore, solubility behaviour of both carbonates explored during the synthesis of biodiesel from CIO by transesterification process. At higher temperature, the concentration of potassium and sodium methoxides decreased and their bicarbonate concentration increased. This solubility behaviour found to be more useful to differentiate homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic route for biodiesel synthesis. At higher temperature, 65 °C, K2CO3, and Na2CO3 exhibited heterogeneous catalytic behaviour, but Na2CO3 showed relatively higher heterogeneous catalytic behaviour as it form higher concentration of insoluble sodium bicarbonate. Therefore, Na2CO3 could be a better heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel synthesis at higher temperatures, 65 °C, as it produces low concentration of sodium methoxide which is an advantage from post biodiesel treatment standpoint.

Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction in the purification of triglycerides from non-edible crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil as biodiesel feedstock using artificial intelligence

Crude nyamplung Calophyllum inophyllum is a potential non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production. Calophyllum Inophyllum oil (CCIO) is a non-edible oil that has a high content of triglyceride (TG) and free fatty acid (FFA). This study aims to optimize microwave-assisted power and extraction time of triglyceride purification from C. inophyllum crude oil for biodiesel. This work deployed Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms consisting of eight Machine Learning (ML) algorithms and found the most accurate model, then optimized using the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm.The result of machine learning modelling Random Forest achieved higher accuracy in R-Square and lower Mean Square Error (MSE) than any other models. Overall, in R-Square average across all variables was 0.949 ± 0.026 and the MSE average of 0.097 ± 0.068. This result can be interpreted as a mean deviation between the predicted value and an accurate value of less than 0.1 for all variables. The optimum of the TG compound resulted in the power of 462.3 W and time of 39.12 min that equalled at 84.02% and FFA equalled at 6.92%. The TG have increased by 11% from the reference range, which states conventional methods from crude oil. Comparison with the MAE method has a minimum fitness value difference of 0.0006 but has a smaller accuracy of less than 1%. Implementing this prediction and optimization method can shorten the extraction time by 5.8 min and reduce energy consumption or system work by 130 kJ. This method can be used for input parameter model prediction and parameter optimization in purification for biodiesel feedstock. Further research can be carried out using other artificial intelligence methods to optimize biodiesel production.

Effect on minor addition of aromatic (benzyl alcohol) and diethyl ether in Calophyllum inophyllum blended diesel fuel in a CI engine operates by hydrogen energy as a secondary fuel

Strict regulations on vehicle emissions are in place to lessen pollution and environmental damage. The depletion of fossil fuels also threatens energy security. Renewable, cleaner-burning and sustainable fuels could aid the researcher in solving these problems. Because of their limited supply, renewable fuels cannot resolve the issue independently. Therefore, much research is being done on enhanced combustion technologies, such as dual-fuel engines, homogenous charge compression ignition, and low-temperature combustion. The Calophyllum inophyllum oil (P20) mixed with diesel, diethyl ether, and aromatic alcohol (benzyl alcohol) was tested in this study using a dual-fuel engine. Hydrogen gas is added to the air intake manifold as a second energy source. Aromatic alcohol is an organic fuel that can be produced naturally by hydrolysis of lignin. The OH hydroxyl group is attached to the aromatic ring and promotes free radical propagation. Minor addition of oxygenates affects the performance, combustion, and emission of engines operating on various loads. Maximum brake thermal efficiency and lower brake-specific fuel consumption were observed with 20 % aromatic alcohol, 32.45 %, and 0.2 kg/kW-hr, respectively. Brake thermal efficiency improved to 6.54 % compared to neat diesel. Reduction in brake-specific fuel consumption by 28 % compared to diesel fuel. Compared to other blends, aromatic alcohol additions are linked to reduced smoke, HC, and CO emissions. However, using aromatic alcohol results in slightly increased nitrogen oxide emissions compared to diesel. Blends of biofuel and benzyl alcohol have shown favorable effects in terms of enhanced combustion, reduced emissions, and increased efficiency.

Taguchi and ANN-based optimization method for predicting maximum performance and minimum emission of a VCR diesel engine powered by diesel, biodiesel, and producer gas

Purpose The study aims to determine the the optimal value of output parameters of a variable compression ratio (CR) diesel engine are investigated at different loads, CR and fuel modes of operation experimentally. The output parameters of a variable compression ratio (CR) diesel engine are investigated at different loads, CR and fuel modes of operation experimentally. The performance parameters like brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake specific energy consumption (BSEC), whereas CO emission, HC emission, CO2 emission, NOx emission, exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and opacity are the emission parameters measured during the test. Tests are conducted for 2, 6 and 10 kg of load, 16.5 and 17.5 of CR. Design/methodology/approach In this investigation, the first engine was fueled with 100% diesel and 100% Calophyllum inophyllum oil in single-fuel mode. Then Calophyllum inophyllum oil with producer gas was fed to the engine. Calophyllum inophyllum oil offers lower BTE, CO and HC emissions, opacity and higher EGT, BSEC, CO2 emission and NOx emissions compared to diesel fuel in both fuel modes of operation observed. The performance optimization using the Taguchi approach is carried out to determine the optimal input parameters for maximum performance and minimum emissions for the test engine. The optimized value of the input parameters is then fed into the prediction techniques, such as the artificial neural network (ANN). Findings From multiple response optimization, the minimum emissions of 0.58% of CO, 42% of HC, 191 ppm NOx and maximum BTE of 21.56% for 16.5 CR, 10 kg load and dual fuel mode of operation are determined. Based on generated errors, the ANN is also ranked for precision. The proposed ANN model provides better prediction with minimum experimental data sets. The values of the R2 correlation coefficient are 1, 0.95552, 0.94367 and 0.97789 for training, validation, testing and all, respectively. The said biodiesel may be used as a substitute for conventional diesel fuel. Originality/value The blend of Calophyllum inophyllum oil-producer gas is used to run the diesel engine. Performance and emission analysis has been carried out, compared, optimized and validated.

The influence of hydrogen as a supplementary fuel on the characteristics of CI engines running on Calophyllum inophyllum oil diesel blend

Hydrogen gas is largely used as a significant supplementary fuel for CI engine due to its clean combustion, high energy content, and abundance. In this research, the engine was made to operate in dual fuel mode with Calophyllum Inophyllum Oil (CIO) diesel blend and hydrogen gas. CIO was directly injected into the combustion chamber through direct injector and hydrogen gas in the intake manifold. The engine was subjected to operate at different loads ranging from 0 to 100 % with the interval of 25 %. The CIO was blended with diesel in two proportions with 20 % and 40 %. The hydrogen gas was supplied at three different flow rates of 10, 20 & 30 L per minute. The maximum energy share of hydrogen induction was limited to 14.38%, 13.05%, and 11.28%, respectively, at full load for diesel, P20, and P40 respectively. Brake thermal efficiency for P20 and P40 at maximum energy share is increased by around 5.34% and 2.01% compared to diesel at full load conditions and also, hydrogen induction with CIO blends shows a promising reduction of pollutants such as CO by 14.89%, HC by 90.1%, and smoke by 32.65% compare with neat diesel. A prolonged ID ignition delay was also observed by the inclusion of pilot fuel and hydrogen due to pre-ignition of the fresh charge. Moreover, this investigation found that the blend of P20 with 13.05% hydrogen sharing at full load significantly improved performance, combustion, and emissions characteristics.

DI-diesel engine fueled with orange peel calophylluminophyllum seed blended biodiesel

Engines that run on diesel fuel are very important to the functioning of contemporary society. At the same time, they are a significant contributor to the pollution of the atmosphere. Because both the comfort of the atmosphere and the inter-related, we are unable to cut down on the usage of diesel at this time. This is a very precarious scenario. The number of vehicles that run on diesel continues to grow on a daily basis. We have no choice but to switch to alternate fuels such as biodiesel if we want to prevent this problem. In the current experiment, orange peel oil was combined with diesel in two distinct proportions: 20% orange oil and 80% diesel, and 40% orange oil and 60% diesel. The purpose of this was to compare the two different combinations. According to the findings, the mixture consisting of 40% orange oil and 60% diesel is the most effective one. Then, Calophyllum inophyllum oil was further added using a transesterification process mixed with potassium hydroxide, isopropyl alcohol, pH indicator, and methanol. Then, different cases were tested: (40% orange oil + 20% Calophyllum inophyllum + 60% diesel), (40% orange oil + 40% Calophyllum inophyllum + 20% diesel) and (100% diesel). The tests show that the break thermal efficiency of O40+C20+D40 and O40+C40+D20 is 4.36 % and 4.76 % which is almost similar. O40+C40+D20 increase the NOx emissions slightly, but it decreases the emissions of HC, CO, CO2, and smoke compared to O40+C20+D40. So, O40+C40+D20 is the best alternative fuel for diesel engines.

A study on Flame Characteristics Premixed Burning by Giving Magnetic Field Induction

This study aims to compare the effect of magnetic field induction on the characteristics of the fire resulting from the combustion of premixed biodiesel calophyllum inophyllum . Further research on premixed combustion flames due to magnetic field induction. As time goes by, petroleum is currently running low, therefore alternative biofuels are needed. One type of non-food vegetable oil is Jatropha and calophyllum inophyllum oil, besides not being consumed, it can be processed into biodiesel as fuel. To get a more effective and efficient flame, you can apply a magnetic field effect to the fire, especially in terms of the burning rate of the fire. The experimental research method is to heat calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel until it is in the form of steam, then flow it to the burner which will then be given air which is controlled by the flow mass. Then the fire is ignited and the mass of the air flow is increased until the fire is lifted until it is extinguished. Two magnets are placed between the burners by varying the direction of the magnetic field N-S, N-N and the results of this study are the shape of the flame. The resulting fire is more transparent, clearer and more visible. The direction of the N-S magnetic field causes the temperature to be higher than the direction of the N-N magnetic field. The high and low of the flame is affected by the direction of the magnetic field, the stronger the N-S magnetic field. The magnetic field can affect the burning speed of the biodiesel flame. In a poor mixture (ϕ <1) in the presence of magnetic influence, the rate of fire is lower without the influence of a magnetic field, but in a rich mixture (ϕ > 1) in the presence of a magnetic influence, the rate of fire is higher than without the influence of a magnetic field. This is due to the magnetic influence that induces oxygen. Oxygen is paramagnetic, so it can be attracted by magnetic fields.

Comprehensive Review on Lipid-based Biomasses as Biodiesel Raw Materials from Ghana

Ghana is a country rich in natural resources, including biodiversity and large water bodies, but it is also plagued by food and energy shortages. Fuel prices are also increasing. Biodiesel made from lipids will attract increasing attention as researchers and experts look for a solution. However, the obvious cheapest option of edible feedstock will be insufficient to meet rising energy and food demand, necessitating the need for a guaranteed feedstock. As a result, this research was conducted to identify lipid-based biomass feedstocks that would be ideal for biodiesel production in Ghana. This research seeks to give current information on the biofuel feedstock currently existing (mostly biodiesel) synthesis from lipid-based biomasses in Ghana. Edible plant oils were the first generation of lipid-based feedstocks, whereas alternative types of feedstocks were identified and reported as the second generation. Non-edible oils, like Jatropha oil, Neem oil, Karanja oil, Nagchampa oil, Calophyllum inophyllum oil, Mahua indica oil, Rubber seed oil, and other non-edible feedstocks are used to make second-generation biodiesels. Vegetable oil waste, industrial wastes and by-products, animal fats, and lipid-derived from microorganisms and insects are also among the 2nd generation feedstocks discussed in this paper. The advantages of 2nd generation feedstocks are the low-cost, high-yielding, and the fact that they do not economically or ethically compete with edible oils (food crops). Nevertheless, all 2nd generation feedstocks are often free fatty acids and having high moisture, which have a significant detrimental impact on the conventional biodiesel synthesis process. As a result, this article contains basic information on processing procedures that can handle 2nd generation feedstocks.

Developing an efficient ester-based drilling fluid based on Calophyllum Inophyllum oil for eco-friendly drilling of unconventional shale formation

The ester-based drilling fluids has been emerged as an alternative to diesel and mineral oil-based drilling fluids and are preferred due to their high biodegradability and low toxicity. In this research study, a novel environment-friendly ester-based drilling fluid has been developed from non-edible vegetable oil. The crude oil extracted from Calophyllum inophyllum seed is transformed into Calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester through two-step esterification and transesterification processes. The physiochemical results suggest the successful synthesis of methyl ester having significantly low kinematic viscosity and higher flashpoint. The Calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester is used as a continuous phase for the formulation of ester-based drilling fluid. A comprehensive experimental study is carried out to evaluate the performance of formulated ester-based drilling fluid at ambient and reservoir conditions. The drilling fluid is examined for its rheological behaviour, filtration characteristic, electrical stability, and viscoelastic properties. The formulated drilling fluid display efficient performance with improved rheological characteristics, reduced filtration loss, high emulsion stability, and enhanced viscoelastic properties. The drilling fluid also performs well at high-temperature conditions and meets the API requirements. The flow behaviour and rheological modelling of drilling fluid are investigated at varying temperatures (25–100 °C) and shear rates (0.1–1200 s−1). The obtained results affirm the non-Newtonian and shear-thinning behaviour of the drilling fluid. The shear-thinning behaviour is quantified using the Herschel–Bulkley model. Oil-based drilling fluid is formulated and tested for comparison. The ester-based drilling fluid exhibit satisfactory rheological characteristics with better filtration and emulsion stability compared to the oil-based drilling fluid. The results exhibit that the formulated drilling fluid can be a viable technical and environmental alternative to diesel and mineral oil-based drilling fluids.

Functional Investigation, Multiple Response Optimization, and Economic Analysis of a VCR CI Engine Fired with Diesel, Calophyllum Inophyllum Oil, and Waste Biomass-Derived Producer Gas in Multi-fuel Mode

Functional Investigation, Multiple Response Optimization, and Economic Analysis of a VCR CI Engine Fired with Diesel, Calophyllum Inophyllum Oil, and Waste Biomass-Derived Producer Gas in Multi-fuel Mode

Simulation separation of triglycerides from Calophyllum inophyllum oil with continuous countercurrent extraction process using Aspen HYSYS

The trends of industry 4.0 transform a process design to a cost-effective development with digital simulation. The objective of this study was to simulate the separation and purification of triglycerides from crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil with a continuous countercurrent extraction method using Aspen HYSYS V.11 to find the appropriate binary parameter coefficients and predict the optimal conditions. It is expected that the oil’s purity suitable with the edible oil standards (minimum 96% triglycerides and 0.3% free fatty acids). The variables used are the flow rate (n-hexane + oil) to methanol and the total mass ratio of solvent to oil. The C. inophyllum oil used contains 63.91% triglycerides, 15.76% free fatty acids, 12.25% diglycerides, and 4.66% monoglycerides. It was evaluated by applying NRTL (Non-Random Two Liquid) and UNIQUAC (Universal Quasi Chemical) fluid packages with binary interaction parameters of UNIFAC-VLE, UNIFAC-LLE, Immiscible, and Modified (fitting parameters). The most suitable fluid package and binary interaction parameter pairing was achieved by combining NRTL fluid package with Modified binary interaction. The highest purity of triglycerides was 92.86%alongside a simulation error of 0.01% while the free fatty acid was 2.17% and 0.91%, respectively, at solvents (hexane and methanol) to oil mass ratio of 6:1 with a hexane-oil to methanol flow rate ratio of 6:15 (LPH/LPH). By upscaling the n number in the extractor, this model can predict the best result of separation and purification of triglycerides with the highest purity of triglycerides and free fatty acids were 96.736% and 0,0001%, respectively. Thus, the edible oil standards can be met.

The Effects of the Polarity and Molecular Dynamic Energy of Bamboo Activated Carbon on the Degumming Process of Calophyllum inophyllum Oil

Modified bamboo activated carbon (BAC) was added to non-edible Calophyllum inophyllum oil in a degumming process. The effects of its polarity and molecular dynamic energy on the degumming process were evaluated using characterizations and hyperChem software simulation. It was found that BAC acquired positive surface charge, polar characteristic, and mesoporous structures. The addition of BAC in the degumming process resulted in sufficient molecular dynamic energy (108.83 kcal/mol at 353K) as simulated by hyperChem, playing a role in facilitating successful dephospholipidation. Negatively charged oxygen around the hydrophilic phosphate head group of phospholipids was induced by BAC. The force exerted helped to loosen bonds around the polar head group. Interaction between BAC and polar water molecules also occurred, facilitating more hydrolysis reaction. These actions led to a higher possibility of phosphate head group removal off the phospholipid molecules. Consequently, there were large decreases in phosphorus, magnesium, and calcium concentrations along with small improvements in viscosity and calorific value in the degummed oil.

Overall Performance Investigation and Optimization of a Multi-fuel Operated Compression Ignition Engine Using Coupled Taguchi and Grey Relational Analysis.

Biofuels are regarded as the best diesel fuel substitute due to their low sulfur concentration, reduced aromatic hydrocarbon content, renewable nature, and higher oxygen content. In this research article, the impact of producer gas, Calophyllum inophyllum oil, diesel, and a blend of C. inophyllum–producer gas fuel on a variable compression ratio (VCR) compression ignition (CI) engine, and the performance and emission parameters are evaluated. Several test runs are undertaken at a constant speed of 1500 rpm to predict the performance and emission characteristics of the test engine by changing input parameters such as engine load, CR, and fuel mode of operation. The brake thermal efficiency, BTE, is considered the performance characteristic, and CO, HC, NOX, and opacity are considered the emission characteristics for the present study. The biofuel, or producer gas, employed in this study is prepared from waste biomasses, such as leaves, small tree branches, vegetable waste, and cow dung, aiding waste management for a sustainable environment. In addition, a coupled Taguchi–Grey relational analysis technique is used to predict the best possible combination of control factors for optimizing the overall output responses. 12 kg load, a CR of 18, and diesel fuel are found to be the optimum input parameters of an engine toward optimum performance. A confirmation test is performed at the end to validate the outcome of the experiment. An enhancement in performance of 22.75% is observed with the considered Grey relational grade model.

Characteristics of coconut shell-based activated carbon as Ni and Pt catalyst supports for hydrotreating Calophyllum inophyllum oil into hydrocarbon-based biofuel

Being massively produced as waste, coconut shell brings an excellent advantage to being a source of carbon for preparing a high-performing low-cost catalyst. In this study, the characteristics of coconut shell-based activated carbon (CSAC) prepared in different activation conditions were observed in its utilization as Ni and Pt catalyst supports for hydrotreating Calophyllum inophyllum oil (CIO) into hydrocarbon-based biofuel. Coconut shell waste was carbonized and activated at various conditions using two different strong base activating agents, NaOH and KOH, to produce numerous types of carbon supports. Amongst them, CSACK2–700 and CSACN3–700, displaying the highest surface area and the best adsorption capacity in the determination of iodine value, were selected to be loaded with two different metals to prepare hydrotreating catalysts: Pt metal for CSACN3–700 (Pt/CSACN3–700) and Ni for CSACK2–700 (Ni/CSACK2–700). The highest liquid product (84.77 wt%) with the best hydrocarbon selectivity (91 wt%) was obtained in the hydrotreatment of CIO at 550 ºC for 2 h using a 1:300 catalyst: feed weight ratio over well-dispersed Pt/CSACN3–700. Meanwhile, Ni/CSACK2–700 was only able to produce 78.83 wt% liquid yields containing 86.2 wt% hydrocarbons in its most optimum hydrotreatment condition using a 1:200 catalyst: feed weight ratio. In its repeated use, Pt/CSACN3–700 was shown to produce a consistent high-liquid product as opposed to Ni/CSACK2–700. However, an enhanced hydrocarbon selectivity was displayed by reusing Ni/CSACK2–700 for hydrotreatment. From the present study, a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative path to produce high-quality biofuel from the highly available Calophyllum inophyllum oil can be offered for future development.

Selectivity of the New Catalyst ZnO-MCM-48-CaO in Esterification of Calophyllum inophyllum Oil

The synthesis of MCM-48 containing surfactants (CTAB and Triton X-100), ZnO, and CaO aimed to find a potential heterogeneous catalyst in the esterification of Calophyllum inophyllum oil to biodiesel. This research is important in the production of biodiesel from vegetable oils with more than 2% free fatty acids (FFA), such as Calophyllum inophyllum oil using heterogeneous catalysts. Synthesis of heterogeneous catalysts, MCM-48 and ZnO-MCM-48-CaO (ZMC), using the hydrothermal method at various calcination temperatures was conducted to find the optimum calcination temperature for the reaction. The activity of the catalyst in the reaction was determined using acid-base titration methods and GC-MS. The MCM-48 catalyst calcined at 650 °C (MCM-48/650) had a catalytic activity of 35.74% and was selective for converting linoleic acid in Calophyllum inophyllum oil to biodiesel. In addition, this catalyst was also capable of cracking the compounds contained in Calophyllum inophyllum oil into suitable hydrocarbons for biodiesel. In the esterification of vegetable oils, four heterogeneous catalysts (MCM-48/550, ZMC/550, ZMC/650, and ZMC/750) had the potential to replace conventional catalysts (H2SO4), particularly in the generation of biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum oil.

A comparative study on the lubricant properties of chemically modified Calophyllum inophyllum oils for bio-lubricant applications

The trend of using non-edible vegetable oils as a potential base stock for industrial lubricants is increasing due to environmental issues and fossil fuel depletion. Calophyllum inophyllum oil (CIO) is a non-edible tree seed oil available in various parts of the world. The major disadvantage of CIO is the high acid and peroxide value, which leads to poor oxidation stability. This study focused on the chemical modification of CIO by epoxidation and transesterification processes to improve its oxidation stability. The fatty acid profile of CIO used in the study was obtained using Gas chromatography - Mass spectroscopy technique and the functional groups present in CIO and chemical modified CIO were identified using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The lubricant properties such as tribological, rheological, physicochemical, thermal properties, and oxidative stability of pure CIO, epoxidized CIO (ECIO), and transesterified CIO (TCIO) have been evaluated and compared in this study. The experimental results indicated that there is a significant improvement in the chemical properties and oxidative stability of CIO after the transesterification and epoxidation process. The viscosity and wear scar diameter of ECIO was observed to be better than that of CIO by 42.81% and 7.97%, respectively. TCIO has shown the least viscosity increment ie., 25.45% after 120 h of heating which shows better oxidative stability. The modified CIO can be considered as a potential base-stock for bio-lubricant formulation.

Tribological study on the biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil, waste cooking oil blend with Calophyllum inophyllum and its diesel blends on lubricant oil

Biodiesel or biodiesel–diesel fuel is the current fuel used to power transportation engines. Contamination on lubricating oil is a common issue due to leakage or extensive use of engines. This study explores the lubricant oil blend’s friction and wear with the biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil, waste cooking oil blend withCalophyllum inophyllum oil, and biodiesel–diesel​ blend. The blending of biodiesels and biodiesel–diesel blend with lubricant oil varies from 5% to 25% of biodiesels and biodiesel–diesel with 95% to 75% of lubricating oil based on volume ratio. The test was conducted using a four-ball tribotester according to the ASTM D 4172. The result showed that blending of BWCIL75 with biodiesel–diesel has the lowest friction coefficient (0.072) among tested oil. The wear scar on the ball bearing lubricated with the blending mixture showed an acceptable diameter value. The wear morphology has shown that a worn surface with black spots provides more protection to the tested ball. The result found that fatty acid contained in the biodiesel and the low viscosity of biodiesel significantly reduced the frictional coefficient of the lubricating oil and worked as wear prevention. Mechanical efficiency of machinery component favour low coefficient of friction. This study indicated that biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil blended with Calophyllum inophyllum oil shows better lubricity and can be used as an additive to petroleum-based lubricant for better automotive engine performance.

Acid Value Reduction of Calophyllum inophyllum Oil by Oilseeds In situ Esterification Using Sulfuric Acid Catalyzed Methanol and Isopropyl Alcohol Mixture

Non-edible oilseed can be used in biodiesel preparation as a low-cost feedstock. However, it contains a high free fatty acid or a high acid value, which causes a problematic biodiesel reaction. The investigation of acid value reduction of Calophyllum inophyllum oilseed by in situ esterification using sulfuric acid-catalyzed methanol and isopropyl alcohol has been conducted. Calophyllum inophyllum oil was extracted by n-hexane in the Soxhlet apparatus to determine the oil content. In situ esterification using methanol-isopropyl alcohol and the sulfuric acid as a catalyst was carried out in a reflux three-neck rounded bottom flask batch process to decrease free fatty acid or acid value. Four independent reaction variables, including the ratio of mixture volume to seed weight, the ratio of methanol to mixture volume, catalyst percentage, and reaction time, were varied. The experiments utilized by the response surface methodology with central composite design configuration to obtain the optimum conditions. The oil content of Calophyllum inophyllum oilseed extraction was 57.94% and an acid value was 90.38 mg KOH/g. The maximum esterified oil yield of 91.00% and 3.81 mg KOH/g minimum acid value were achieved in the optimum reaction conditions.