California Water Research Articles

Cutaneous conditions and injuries in Ziphius cavirostris and Mesoplodon peruvianus from Mexican Pacific and Southern California waters

Cutaneous conditions and injuries in Ziphius cavirostris and Mesoplodon peruvianus from Mexican Pacific and Southern California waters

Assessing the Vulnerability of California Water Utilities to Wildfires

Wildfires are becoming more frequent and destructive in California, and it is essential to quantify their potential impacts on drinking water utilities. This study aims to measure the severity of wildfires in each California water utility based on the exposure frequency and the extent of area burned by wildfires in each service area. Our quantitative models show an association between water utility characteristics and their vulnerability to wildfires. Findings indicate that wildfire vulnerability is higher in government-owned utilities than private ones, utilities primarily relying on surface water than groundwater, and utilities using local-sourced water than purchased water. Also, we find a stronger association between wildfire vulnerability and large utilities in terms of population served than small or medium ones. Regarding geography, we find wildfire vulnerability is higher in southern and coastal California utilities than in Northern and inland California. These results help water utilities and land managers identify vulnerable locations and develop wildfire management and disaster preparedness strategies.

Efficient Reduction of Cr(VI) with Carbon Quantum Dots.

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) pollution is a global problem, and the reduction of highly toxic Cr(VI) to less toxic Cr(III) is considered to be an effective method to address Cr(VI) pollution. In this study, low-toxicity carbon quantum dots (CQDs) were used to reduce Cr(VI) in wastewater. The results show that CQDs can directly reduce Cr(VI) at pH 2 and can achieve a reduction efficiency of 94% within 120 min. It is observed that under pH higher than 2, CQDs can activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) for the reduction of Cr(VI) and the reduction efficiency can reach 99% within 120 min even under neutral conditions. The investigation of the mechanism shows that the hydroxyl groups on the surface of CQDs can be directly oxidized by Cr(VI) because of the higher redox potential of Cr(VI) at pH 2. As the pH increases, the carbonyl groups on the surface of CQDs can activate PMS to generate ROS, O2•–, and 1O2, which result in Cr(VI) being reduced. To facilitate the practical application of CQDs, the treatment of Cr(VI) in real water samples by CQDs was simulated and the method reduced Cr(VI) from an initial concentration of 5 mg/L to only 8 μg/L in 150 min, which is below the California water quality standard of 10 μg/L. The study provides a new method for the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater and a theoretical basis for practical application.

Influence of the advection of water masses in the Ballenas Channel on the CO[formula omitted] system in Bahía de los Angeles (Mexico)

The surface waters of the Ballenas Channel (BC) are characterized by thermohaline and biogeochemical conditions that depend on the water masses present. Since these surface waters are transported into Bahía de los Ángeles (BLA), it is relevant to assess their timing, intensity and biogeochemical implications on a seasonal scale. For this purpose, the seasonal and spatial variability of temperature, salinity, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and total alkalinity (TA), were quantified over 19 discrete monthly monitoring campaigns that covered 12 stations in BLA from June 2017 to October 2019. In addition, vertical CTD profiles of thermohaline, apparent oxygen utilization (AOU), and nitrate were obtained for the purposes of identifying the water masses present and determining how they change by season. It was found that the dynamics of DIC, AOU, nitrate, and temperature in BLA respond to the presence of Subtropical Subsurface Water (SSW), evident by the enrichment of the bay with high DIC and nitrate concentrations during winter, but during summer occurs the opposite, with the presence of the Gulf of California Water (GCW). In addition, zonation analysis within BLA indicated three regions consistently found along the year, attributed to different physical and biogeochemical processes. Finally, we also interpreted the data in the context of the interannual variability due to ENSO events by using a relationship between observed temperature–DIC data. A 20-year calculated DIC (DICcalc) time series for an area near BLA indicated that during summer periods under the influence of La Niña events, the DICcal in front to BLA could be 10-12μmol kg −1 higher than El Niño events. These high DIC values, likely promoted by an increased volume of SSW in the BC, is accompanied by a higher nutrients concentration, suggesting that the interannual variability must interact with biological processes within BLA and other adjacent embayment’s in this region.

New octocoral records for the Ecuadorian Tropical Eastern Pacific

ABSTRACT The genus Muricea, a highly speciose gorgonian coral group in the Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP), is commonly found on shallow rocky reefs including Machalilla National Park (MNP), El Pelado Marine Reserve (REMAPE) and Galápagos Marine Reserve (GMR). Here, we report the presence of M. hebes, M. echinata and M. robusta, which have been not previously reported at the REMAPE area and along the Ecuadorian region. These new records for Muricea hebes (Verril, 1864) in Ecuador broaden the known geographical distribution of these species across the tempered waters of California and Mexico, and the Tropical Eastern Pacific, belonging to Panama and Ecuador. Muricea robusta (Verril, 1864) was previously recorded in Mexico and Colombia, whereas M. echinata (Verril, 1866) was only found in Panama. This report contributes to increasing the knowledge of marine diversity in Ecuador, and broadens the previously recorded geographic distribution of the genus Muricea throughout the TEP.

Evaluation of bioscrubber and biofilter technologies treating wastewater foul air by a new approach of using odor character, odor intensity, and chemical analyses

The treatment of raw foul air that could escape to the atmosphere from the head space of the incoming wastewater into a Southern California Water Resource Recovery Facility was evaluated by using a 1/20th scale pilot unit consisting of five different biological media technologies, operating side by side, under different operating conditions. The removal of six different odor characters from eight chemical odorants present in the foul air were assessed. These were rotten egg (Hydrogen Sulfide), rotten vegetables (Methyl Mercaptan), canned corn (Dimethyl Sulfide), rotten garlic (Dimethyl Disulfide), earthy/musty (2-Methyl Isoborneol and 2-Isopropyl 3-Methyl Pyrazine) and fecal (Skatole and Indole). This is the first time a study evaluates specific odors by simultaneously employing sensory analyses using the Odor Profile Method, which defines the different odor characters and intensities, together with chemical analyses of the compounds causing these odors, known as odorants.The paper discusses the efficiencies in removing odor characters as well as odorants by two different bioscrubbers (reticulated polyurethane cube foam and polypropylene mesh with layered polyester foam) and three different biofilters (engineered media, seashells, and lava rock).The results show that the two bioscrubbers, even with greater empty bed gas retention times, did not provide significant improvement in odor intensity and odorant removal. However, the biofilters showed that larger empty bed gas retention times provided significant improvements in diminishing the odor intensities and better odorant removal.The biofilter with lava rock media at 45 s empty bed gas retention time provided the best treatment among the technologies tested, achieving the following odorant reductions: 99.8% for hydrogen sulfide, 98.4% for methyl mercaptan, 57.0% for dimethyl sulfide, and 52.7 for dimethyl disulfide. This biofilter also achieved the following odor intensity reductions: 47% for rotten vegetable odors, 50% for earthy/musty odors, and 100% for fecal odors. The odor panel detected odors by the Odor Profile Method that were below the detection limit of the corresponding chemical analytical method for specific chemical compounds causing these odors.Differences were observed between the performances of bioscrubbers and biofilters, based on odorant removal compared to those based on sensorial analyses, indicating that both analyses are required to understand more fully the odor dynamics. Furthermore, a total odor removal of 99.2% was observed by the dilution to threshold olfactometer method even though nearly half of the rotten vegetable and earthy/musty odors remained based upon the Odor Profile Method. This shows the olfactometer method did not correctly define the degree of odor nuisance in the foul air in this study.Bioscrubbers have in general a better economic return when used at low EBGRTs and as preliminary (first stage) treatment systems. Biofilters are more effective when used at high EBGRTs and can be used as stand-alone or polishing systems.

Planning for effective water management: an evaluation of water management plans in California

Facing pressures to contend with continual changes in physical availability, to balance water supply with environmental and social impacts, and to build resilience to environmental hazards such as droughts and climate change, water managers increasingly use management plans as a blueprint for managing water. We apply qualitative content analysis to evaluate water management plans from diverse water and land use organizations in California’s Central Valley. To understand whether plans are working toward holistic, multi-dimensional management, we assess plans’ coverage of water supply, environmental, and socioeconomic dimensions of water use, as well as the quality and implementability of the plans. The plans provide a strong assessment of water supplies and indicate progression toward integrated water resource management. However, we identify gaps in managing water for the environment, considering socioeconomic and distributional impacts, planning for future drought and climate change, and effective coordination with other water agencies and the public.

Assessing Role of Drought Indices in Anticipating Pine Decline in the Sierra Nevada, CA

Tree mortality in Sierra Nevada’s 2012–2015 drought was unexpectedly excessive: ~152 million trees died. The relative performance of five drought indices (DIs: SPEI, AI, PDSI, scPDSI, and PHDI) was evaluated in the complex, upland terrain which supports the forest and supplies 60% of Californian water use. We tested the relative performance of DIs parameterized with on-site and modeled (PRISM) meteorology using streamflow (linear correlation), and modeled forest stand NDVI and tree basal area increment (BAI) with current and lagged year DI. For BAI, additional co-variates that could modify tree response to the environment were included (crown vigor, point-in-time rate of bole growth, and tree to tree competition). On-site and modeled parameterizations of DIs were strongly correlated (0.9), but modeled parameterizations overestimated water availability. Current year DIs were well correlated (0.7–0.9) with streamflow, with physics-based DIs performing better than pedologically-based DIs. DIs were poorly correlated (0.2–0.3) to forest stand NDVI in these variable-density, pine-dominated forests. Current and prior year DIs were significant covariates in the model for BAI but accounted for little of the variation in the model. In this ecosystem where trees shift seasonally between near-surface to regolithic water, DIs were poorly suited for anticipating the observed tree decline.

Dynamic seismic damage assessment of distributed infrastructure systems using graph neural networks and semi-supervised machine learning

A methodology is presented for performing dynamic seismic damage assessment of distributed infrastructure systems using graph neural networks and semi-supervised machine learning. To achieve this goal, a pre-event damage assessment is performed using either traditional fragility-based models or a machine learning classification algorithm trained on historical damage data. Then, a graph-neural network is implemented to perform semi-supervised learning and update the pre-event predictions as observations of actual damage become available during the post-earthquake inspection process. The methodology is demonstrated on the pipe network for the City of Napa, California water distribution system. A dataset of pipes damaged during the 2014 M 6.0 earthquake is used for validation purposes. A conventional neural network classification model is first trained on a portion of the observed pipe damage and used to perform the pre-event damage assessment i.e., supervised learning. Following the earthquake, a graph neural network model is employed to update the damage estimates given the information incrementally collected during the inspection process. The evaluation results show that the neural network supervised learning model provides better pre-event damage estimates than the existing repair rate-based model. Also, the graph neural network models can provide improved damage quantification given partial information collected during the inspection process.

Resilient California Water Portfolios Require Infrastructure Investment Partnerships That Are Viable for All Partners

AbstractWater scarcity is a growing problem around the world, and regions such as California are working to develop diversified, interconnected, flexible, and resilient water supply portfolios. To meet these goals, water utilities, irrigation districts, and other organizations will need to cooperate across scales to finance, build, and operate shared water supply infrastructure. However, planning studies to date have generally focused on partnership‐level outcomes (i.e., highly aggregated cost‐benefit analyses), while ignoring the heterogeneity of benefits, costs, and risks across the individual partners. This study contributes an exploratory modeling analysis that tests thousands of alternative infrastructure partnerships in the Central Valley of California, using a daily scale simulation model (CALFEWS) to evaluate the effects of new infrastructure on individual water providers. The viability of conveyance and groundwater banking investments are as strongly shaped by partnership design choices (i.e., which water providers are participating, and how is the project's debt distributed?) as by extreme hydrologic conditions (i.e., floods and droughts). Importantly, most of the analyzed partnerships yield highly unequal distributions of water supply and financial risks across the partners, so that only 8% of the partnerships explored are capable of providing water to each partner for under $200/ML. Partnership viability is especially rare in the absence of groundwater banking facilities (1%), or under dry hydrologic conditions (1%), even under explicitly optimistic assumptions regarding climate change. Given these results, we outline several major policy implications for institutionally complex regions such as California, which are currently investing heavily in cooperative approaches to resilient water portfolio design.

Five decades (1972-2020) of zooplankton monitoring in the upper San Francisco Estuary.

We present the longest available dataset (by 15 years) of estuarine zooplankton abundance worldwide. Zooplankton have been monitored throughout the upper San Francisco Estuary from 1972 -present due to its status as a central hub of California water delivery and home to commercially important and endangered fishes. We integrated data from five monitoring programs, including over 300 locations, three size-classes of zooplankton targeted with different gears, over 80,000 samples, and over two billion sampled organisms. Over the duration of this dataset, species invasions have driven community turnover, periodic droughts have occurred, and important fishes have declined, likely due in part to reduced food supply from zooplankton. Data from the individual surveys have been used in prior studies on issues related to species invasions, flows, fish diets and population dynamics, zooplankton population dynamics, and community ecology. Our integrated dataset offers unparalleled spatio-temporal scope to address these and other fundamental ecological questions.

Protecting Against Water Rate Challenges With the Equivalent of Bear Spray

Key TakeawaysA California water utility was sued over its water budget–based rate structure designed to help customers conserve the state's most precious resource.The case was followed closely by many in the industry looking for ways to endure the ever‐present threat of water scarcity.The utility successfully defended itself and shares lessons learned for other water agencies facing rate challenges.

Evaluating Adherence With Voluntary Slow Speed Initiatives to Protect Endangered Whales

Vessel strikes are one of the main threats to large whales globally and to endangered blue, fin, and humpback whales in California waters. For over 10 years, NOAA has established seasonal voluntary Vessel Speed Reduction (VSR) zones off of California and requested that all vessels 300 gross tons (GT) or larger decrease speeds to 10 knots or less to reduce the risk of vessel strikes on endangered whales. We offer a comprehensive analysis quantifying cooperation levels of all vessels ≥ 300 GT from 2010 to 2019 within designated VSR zones using Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) data. While average speeds of large vessels have decreased across the years studied, cooperation with voluntary 10-knot speed reduction requests has been lower than estimated to be needed to reduce vessel-strike related mortality to levels that do not inhibit reaching and maintaining optimal sustainable populations. A comparison of vessel speeds across inactive and active voluntary VSR time periods show a modest (+ 15%) increase in cooperation from 2017 to 2019. A complementary, incentive-based VSR program that was started in 2014 and scaled up in 2018 within the region likely improved voluntary VSR cooperation levels, as participating container and car carrier vessels traveled at lower speeds during the VSR season than vessels not enrolled in the incentive-based effort. Comparisons of vessel speeds in the incentive-based VSR program across inactive and active time periods showed a significant (+ 41%) increase in cooperation. With cooperation levels for the voluntary VSR hovering around 50%, and the challenge of funding and sustaining an incentive-based VSR program, voluntary VSR approaches may be insufficient to achieve cooperation levels needed to significantly reduce the risk of vessel strike-related mortality for these federally protected whales, suggesting that VSR regulations warrant consideration.

Rapid surface water warming and impact of the recent (2013–2016) temperature anomaly in shallow coastal waters at the eastern entrance of the Gulf of California

Anthropogenically-induced global warming is increasing surface seawater temperatures (SST) worldwide. Furthermore, the Northeastern Tropical Pacific is affected by seasonal, interannual (El Niño – Southern Oscillation, marine heatwaves), and decadal variabilities (Pacific Decadal Oscillation). Here we analyzed a long-term (1973–2016) SST time-series from the Mazatlán coastal zone, at the eastern entrance of the Gulf of California (Mexico) to record the warming trend and to examine the effect of the 2013–2016 North Pacific SST positive anomaly. This SST time-series can be useful to better understand the interplay of surface water masses in the region (Tropical Surface Water, Gulf of California Water, and California Current Water) and their transport mechanisms. Variability analysis was focused on 2007–2016, for which a 10-year climatology was established. During this period, two La Niña and El Niño events, and a regional marine heatwave occurred in the Northeast Pacific. There was a significant positive correlation between the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) and SST anomalies. La Niña events caused large negative anomalies (up to 4 °C) in maximum SST, and El Niño events caused large positive anomalies (up to 7 °C) in the minimum SST. The 2013–2014 regional marine heatwave was preceded by a previously unreported anomalous regional warming at the entrance of the Gulf of California (2012–2013), which caused positive anomalies of 4 °C in minimum SST. Since then, each winter showed increasing minimum SST anomalies until reaching a 7 °C maximum in 2016. Minimum SST positive anomalies were caused by i) the inhibition of coastal upwelling of cold waters, and ii) a limited penetration of California Current cold waters. For the past 40 years, we estimated a mean warming trend of 0.57 ± 0.01 °C per decade in the study area, which is larger than the global ocean increasing trend. This relatively fast warming rate could be caused by i) local effects caused by shallowness and coastal dynamics, ii) an increasing influence of warmer Tropical Surface Water transported by the Mexican Coastal Current, iii) the transport and upwelling of warmer waters from the Western Pacific Warm Pool during El Niño events, and iv) global warming, as increasing SST can induce stronger and longer-lasting thermoclines, especially in regions commonly affected by upwelling events. If this trend persists, a simple linear extrapolation would indicate that the mean SST from 1977 to 2100 would increase by 7 °C. This extrapolation should be taken with caution, but such an increase would have profound effects on the coastal ecosystems, so possible adaptation strategies merit urgent attention by scientists and coastal zone managers to dynamically adapt to coastal global warming and marine heatwaves. This methodology can be used in other coastal zones worldwide where enough field and satellite data are available.

Variability of hydrographic factors, biomass and structure of the phytoplankton community at the entrance to the Gulf of California (spring 2013)

This study reports observations of the horizontal and vertical variation of chlorophyll a (Chla) and the taxonomic composition of phytoplankton at the entrance to the Gulf of California (GC) and its relationship with physicochemical processes. This region is part of the northern boundary of one of the largest shallow Oxygen Minimum Zones in the world, characterized by marked physicochemical gradients. Therefore, understanding the prevailing seasonal patterns and their relationship with primary producers is considered particularly relevant. The study period, April 2013, was characterized by mesoscale eddies and fronts associated with several water masses (California Current Water - CCW, Gulf of California Water - GCW, and Subtropical Subsurface Water - StSsW), which influenced the horizontal and vertical distribution of Chla between 0 and 150 m. Superficial southward flow of CCW was observed near the west coast of Baja California, turning toward the GC flowing between 30 and 60 m depth. At the entrance to the GC, the currents circulated anticyclonically, flowing into the GC near Baja California, while GCW flowed out of the GC near the mainland coast. The vertical distribution of Chla featured a subsurface maximum layer (SCML) associated with the 25 kg m-3 isopycnal, highlighting the importance of stratification processes as drivers of the vertical distribution of phytoplankton biomass. In turn, this favored different associations of phytoplankton groups. In surface waters, the phytoplankton community was dominated by picocyanobacteria (Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus) and Prymnesiophytes, while at the SCML, Prymnesiophytes coexist mainly with Prasinophytes, Chrysophytes, and Cryptophytes. The prevalence of these flagellates (and the absence of autotrophic dinoflagellates) suggests the importance of a multivorous food web in this region, typical of environments where carbon recycling predominates in the pelagic zone. Diatoms made no significant contribution to Chla, although their abundance increased in the SCML associated with the influence of the CCW. The low N:P (8.3) and Si:N (0.86) ratios indicate that nitrates and silica are potentially limiting nutrients for the development of this group.

The Drinking Water Tool: A Community-Driven Data Visualization Tool for Policy Implementation.

The Drinking Water Tool (DWT) is a community-driven online tool that provides diverse users with information about drinking water sources and threats to drinking water quality and access due to drought. Development of the DWT was guided by the Community Water Center (CWC) as part of the Water Equity Science Shop (WESS), a research partnership integrating elements of community-based participatory research and the European Science Shop model. The WESS engages in scientific projects that inform policy change, advance water justice, and reduce cumulative exposure and disproportionate health burdens among impacted communities in California. WESS researchers conducted qualitative analysis of 15 stakeholder interviews regarding the DWT, including iterative feedback and the stakeholder consultation process as well as stakeholder perceptions of the tool’s impact on California water policy, organizing, and research. Results indicate that the DWT and the stakeholder engagement process which developed it were effective in influencing policy priorities and in promoting interagency coordination at multiple levels to address water equity challenges and their disproportionate burdens, particularly among rural and low socioeconomic status areas and communities of color.

Three-dimensional distribution of larval fish habitats at the entrance of the Gulf of California in the tropical-subtropical convergence region off Mexico (April 2012)

AbstractLarval fish habitats and their representative species were analyzed in relation to water mass distribution and mesoscale processes at the entrance of the Gulf of California during April 2012. Results show that the oxygenated Gulf of California Water (GCW) spread south near Cabo Corrientes, above the hypoxic (>44 μmol kg-1) Subtropical Subsurface Water (StSsW), causing strong stratification. Two mesoscale eddies south of Cabo San Lucas entrapped surface oxygenated Transitional Water and sunk hypoxic waters to ~100 m depth. These conditions defined two larval fish habitats that extended horizontally over most of the study area and were vertically separated by the eddy-modulated oxycline depth: a surface habitat associated with the southwards expansion of GCW and the influence of the eddies, represented by Vinciguerria lucetia; and a hypoxic habitat, represented by the highest abundances of Diogenichthys laternatus. Results are in contrast with previous studies that recorded these mesopelagic species throughout the water column. A third larval fish habitat was associated with the upwelling area off Cabo Corrientes, represented by Bregmaceros bathymaster. This species shows high tolerance to wide gradients of dissolved oxygen. Our records indicate that a highly stratified water column could favor the expansion of hypoxic StSsW and associated marine biota.

Patterns of Water Use in California

Recent patterns of water use and supply in California are presented based on a new data set compiled from the California Department of Water Resources water balance data for 2002 through 2016. The water use and supply include surface water and groundwater, although groundwater reporting has been incomplete. These data are used to support the Water Plan released every 3 to 5 years and are the most comprehensive and finest spatial- and temporal-scale data set for California water resources. First, using the Bay–Delta watershed as a case example, we show that recent fluctuations in water use are highly correlated with variations in precipitation. Developed water supplies and use show these fluctuations, but they are modified by reservoir inflows and releases, groundwater supplies, and Delta outflows. Second, although the annually precipitated water supply in the Bay–Delta varies by about 30%, the developed water supply damps this considerably. The water management system maintained nearly constant agricultural water use even in periods of intense drought, with year-to-year variation of about 7%. Variability in urban water use is higher (∼20%), largely from conservation during periods of drought. Finally, this information can help improve water resource management because it connects regional-scale data to meaningful policy decision-making at county and sub-county levels. At a time when water policy and management are being re-evaluated across the American West in the light of changing climate, decision-making informed by science and data is urgently needed. The statewide water balance data provide the means to establish a consistent, quantitative framework for water resource analysis throughout the state.

Frederick Tschopp, Landscape Architect, OE in New Zealand 1929-32

Frederick Tschopp was a naturalised American of Swiss birth who had trained as a horticulturalist specialising in landscape architecture. He and his wife arrived in Auckland in September 1929 and he soon found work with some of the local bodies there. Works and Development in Wellington later employed him in designing gardens for several important government properties. This was not a permanent position however and about July 1931 he moved to Rotorua with a major contract to beautify the city, including extensive street plantings and an upgrade of the lake shore. Most of this work was well-received but there were some dissenting voices. The contract was terminated in November 1932, but with several goodwill gestures. While in Rotorua, Frederick had visited both Hamilton and Tauranga, commenting on landscape design aspects. The family (now with the addition of a son) left New Zealand for home in Los Angeles in late November 1932. Frederick had a subsequent career with the Department of Water in California and died at Laguna Hills, Orange, California in February 1980.The reasons for Tschopp's visit to New Zealand can be interpreted in two ways. Clearly the newspapers regarded him as an overseas expert with a talent for landscape design, still a fairly new concept in the country in the late 1920s. He undoubtedly stood out as an American with drive and initiative. But he was only 24 when he first arrived, and his motives may well have been to gain overseas experience (OE) to help his chances of obtaining a lucrative job on his return to America. One paper described him as being in the course of a world tour but there is no conclusive evidence for him having spent long in other countries at this time.

Financialization of Water: Conceptual Analysis of the California Water Crisis

Water is a rapidly shrinking commodity. As we continue to use water for industry, farming, and sustaining our own lives, we must realize its intrinsic value. In December of 2020, water was given a new value as a future on a commodities market. This paper aims to discuss the practical, ethical, and financial considerations of trading water in this manner. A thorough conceptual analysis of the literature and research from 2009 to 2020 related to commodities and their history was performed, and a more contemporary review of water policy and pricing. The goal is to develop a mixed solution that gives value to water without allowing it to be exploited to the detriment of the poor; water must be accessible and affordable if it is to be managed ethically. Approaching water as a high-value resource might create a market that makes it unobtainable for most of us; however, with a system that controls pricing, creates standards, and simultaneously works to increase the supply of water, we may be able to create a “market.” Our critique of the research and available solutions indicates rising water prices and mostly regressive policies. As a result, market controls need to be implemented to control pricing while ensuring water availability for all.