Calculation Of Economic Losses Research Articles

Попередня оцінка втрат для рибного господарства Харківської області внаслідок воєнних дій

Purpose. Based on the author’s materials, to carry out a preliminary assessment of ecological and economic losses caused to the fisheries complex of the Kharkiv region as a result of military actions. Methodology. Field studies on water bodies of the Kharkiv Region, which were affected by military actions, were conducted. Public data of the State Agency of Land Reclamation and Fisheries of Ukraine in the Kharkiv Region (2021–2023) were used. The following research methods were used during the assessment of the ecological consequences and economic losses caused to the aquatic biological resources of water bodies of the Kharkiv region: analytical – collection of information from official sources of enterprises and institutions carrying out economic activities, control and monitoring of water bodies; geoinformation – assessment of the actual hydrological regime of water bodies; identification of the spatial location, measurement of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of water areas formed after the reservoirs drying-up; hydrobiological – determination of fish species and other hydrobiont composition; statistical – for qualitative and quantitative assessment of commercial ichthyofauna and the economic damage inflicted to the fishery; forecast –assessment of the potential transformation of the species biodiversity of the ecosystem in time under different conditions of further development of the water sector of Ukraine. Findings. The impact of military actions on the conditions of existence of aquatic biological resources in the Oskil and Pechenegi reservoirs, on the functioning of special commercial fish farms, the production of aquaculture products, and the development of industrial and recreational fishing in the region has been preliminarily assessed. The calculation of economic losses for aquatic bioresources of water bodies of the Kharkiv region was carried out. Originality. For the first time, a preliminary assessment of losses for the fisheries industry (including commercial, recreational fishing, aquaculture) of the Kharkiv region due to military actions was carried out. Practical value. The obtained results have important and multifaceted practical value, in particular they can be used for: assessment of environmental damage caused to Ukraine as a result of military actions; rational management of water and fisheries management due to restoration of water ecosystems exposed to military impact; development of recommendations on restoration of ecosystem services; spread of social awareness about the post-war environmental challenges of the future; making decisions about investments in natural resources and the use of ecosystem services.

Seismic acceleration demands in tall CLT buildings, predictive models and intensity measures

An accurate prediction of floor accelerations is crucial for estimating damage to contents and non-structural components in a building. Oversimplifying the nature of acceleration demands might result in biased estimates of building damage and consequently bias in the calculation of economic losses. However, given the relative novelty of multi-storey tall timber buildings, dedicated studies and models of their seismic acceleration demands are lacking. The need for these is stressed further when we recognise that the behaviour of walled timber structures is decidedly different from that of other conventional structural types. In this study, we apply modern data-driven approaches to evaluate efficient intensity measures (IMs) and develop regression models for predicting the peak floor acceleration (PFA) of multi-storey cross-laminated timber (CLT) buildings. Twenty-four IMs are evaluated and their prediction performance is compared. The sensitivity of acceleration demands to different IMs over a wide range of CLT buildings is investigated. We perform a systematic feature selection process using three different data-driven techniques. The selected features are then used to develop nine regression models to estimate PFA. Various modelling techniques, consisting of conventional (Linear and Polynomial regressions) as well as machine learning algorithms (Decision trees, Random forest, K-nearest neighbour, and Support vector regression) are used. The dataset used to train the models is obtained from numerical results of 69 CLT building models with variations in building height, panel fragmentation levels, and q-factors (ductility levels) subjected to a large set of strong earthquakes. After assessing the accuracy of our model predictions, their PFA estimates obtained are compared against previous research and design codes. Finally, simplified expressions for estimating peak floor accelerations in CLT structures are provided for practical purposes.

Reconstruction of State Economic Losses in Criminal Acts of Corruption in Indonesia

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine and know the concept and application of proof and calculation of state economic losses, which so far law enforcement on the application of proving state economic losses is rarely carried out by law enforcement. Method: The definition of the state economy as referred to in the Elucidation of the Corruption Law is very general and has multiple interpretations so that it is difficult to explain in trial evidence, this has an impact on the lack of law enforcement in implementing state economic losses. Results and conclusion: The concept of state economic losses in its application based on the corruption law can be formulated more concretely, including determining the characteristics and scope of state economic losses, and along with the development of science, especially economics, relating to state economic losses as a corruption impact. The calculation of economic losses uses two approaches, namely economic losses and lost expenditures. By taking action that does not harm the country's economy, law enforcement against criminal acts of corruption can be more optimal and the recovery of state economic losses can be maximized in order to welfare society. Research implications: Economists who focus on the problem of state economic losses, with certain formulas can calculate the real amount of state economic losses. The component of state economic losses is calculated based on the amount of losses incurred, namely multiple economic impacts. Originality/value: The various corruption cases that have been revealed in these sectors show that there is an impact on the state and regional economy that is far greater than the value of state losses due to acts of corruption that occur. The stabilization function of the economy has been disrupted so that the economic fundamentals of the country or region have weakened.

Methodological Approaches to Assessing the Economic Damage Associated with the Incidence of Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome in the Russian Federation

The aim of the study was to develop methodological approaches to assessing the economic damage associated with the incidence of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and to calculate the economic damage by the example of an outbreak of HFRS in the Saratov region in 2019. Materials and methods. The paper analyzes the economic indicators of the Federal State Statistics Service; data on the incidence of HFRS in the Russian Federation for the period of 2019–2022. To calculate the cost of outpatient and inpatient medical care, as well as the costs associated with the medical follow-up of convalescents, the indicators of the Program of state guarantees of free provision of medical care to citizens for 2022 and for the scheduled period of 2023 and 2024 were used. The calculation of economic losses associated with the payment of temporary disability benefits was carried out according to the equation provided in the Federal Law No. 255-FZ dated December 29, 2006 (as amended on October 07, 2022). Economic losses associated with premature death at an economically active age were calculated based on the value of unproduced GDP due to lost years of life in the corresponding age group. Results and discussion. The costs of treatment, rehabilitation and payment of temporary disability benefits for 1 case of HFRS at the age of 0 to 56.5 years for the female population and from 0 to 61.5 years for the male population amount to 140 495 rubles; over the age of 56.5 years for the female population and 61.5 years for the male population – 95 412 rubles, respectively. Each fatal case of HFRS aged 0 to 16 years among the male population costs the state 38 976 231 rubles; among the female population – 34 708 331 rubles; in active working age – the value of economic damage varies depending on the age of the person who died of HFRS. The economic damage of the outbreak of HFRS in the Saratov Region (2019), taking into account the direct expenditures of the healthcare system and indirect losses of the country’s economy amounted to 441 453 432 rubles. It is of note that the structure of the main damage is dominated by indirect losses in the economy caused by the premature death of people in economically active age.

Flood Damage on Dairy Farms: A What-If Analysis to Assess Economic Losses

Although the impact of floods on the agricultural sector is relevant, with potential consequences on food security, in the new EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) proposal, agricultural risk management tools have been reinforced and extended. As far as we know, guidelines for the estimation of insurance indemnities related to flooding damage in the European livestock sector have not been proposed yet, unlike what has occurred in extra-European contexts. The present research proposes a model to identify the components of flood damage on dairy farms aimed at categorizing the cost typologies related to flood events by implementing a what-if approach. Our results highlight that collecting data about the vulnerability of a farm is an essential condition to assess the severity of damage from an economic perspective. In fact, even if some of the variables considered cause large economic losses per se, others are mainly related to poor management of issues related to the health of the herd (i.e., mastitis, lameness, other diseases). Such issues can be exacerbated by floods. Herd management, which includes comprehensive data collection, is essential for the calculation of economic losses in a single farm case and is also indispensable for the calculation of indemnity for the recovery of farming activities.

Study on Seismic Resilience Quantitative Framework of Subway Stations and Resilience Improvement Strategy

Improving the seismic resilience of urban underground structures is among the hot topics concerning disaster prevention and the mitigation engineering of underground structures; however, there is still a lack of research on the quantitative methods for the seismic resilience of underground structures. Based on the existing research results of seismic resilience in other fields and combined with the actual situation of subway stations, in this paper, a quantitative framework for the seismic resilience of subway stations was proposed. In this quantitative framework, the seismic resilience of subway stations was described from the functional and economic levels, respectively, with two indices. Also, a recovery model and an indirect economic loss calculation method for subway stations were proposed. Based on the proposed framework, the strategy and mechanism of improving seismic resilience were analyzed. Moreover, a finite element model was established to calculate and analyze the effects of the two strategies on enhancing the seismic resilience of subway stations by adding seismic mitigation measures before earthquakes and accelerating restoration after earthquakes. The results showed that the proposed framework is feasible, as both strategies showed to improve the seismic resilience of a subway station; however, the mechanisms are different. After the installation of seismic mitigation measures before an earthquake, the functional recovery capacity of the station increased by 22–30%, and the economic loss decreased by 43–75%. After the earthquake, by increasing the number of repair workers, the functional recovery capacity increased by 5–25%, and the economic losses decreased by 10–48%.

A Bayesian network approach for determining optimal ecological base flow of rivers in water shortage areas of Northwest China.

How to balance natural river base flow with water loss from agricultural activities such as irrigation has become an important global challenge in areas of water shortage. Using a Bayesian network model, we constructed a decision-making framework for river ecological base flow in the water shortage areas. This framework can be divided into three components: (1) calculation of economic losses caused when priority is given to protect river ecological base flow, (2) construction of a decision-making Bayesian network, and (3) determination of an optimum ecological base flow of rivers based on an acceptable probability of acceptable economic losses the decision-makers selected. We used the Baoji section of the Weihe River as a typical water shortage area case study. The results show that the optimum ecological base flows in the Baoji section of Weihe River in wet, normal, and dry years were 32.35%, 20.59%, and 14.71% of natural inflow in rivers, respectively. From an economic benefit perspective, the beneficiaries should provide more financial support to protect the ecological base flow of rivers. Our approach could be used in other water shortage areas where decisions need to be made between protection of river ecological base flows of rivers and agricultural use.

Analisa Keruntuhan Bendungan Malahayu Kabupaten Brebes Dengan Aplikasi HEC-RAS dan Perhitungan Kerugian Dengan Aplikasi InaSAFE

In the simulation using HEC-RAS 5.0.7 the part to be simulated is the condition of the Malahayu Dam which collapsed due to 7 conditions causing inundation in the downstream area of the Malahayu Dam. Obtained from 7 conditions of dam collapse, the overtopping collapse scenario is the most extreme collapse scenario with an inundation area of 143.54 km2 with a maximum flood inundation height of 19.943 m. The purpose of this dam collapse simulation is to get the most extreme inundation so that in the next process of the inundation, the calculation of economic losses will be carried out with the help of the InaSAFE application. Losses resulting from the Malahayu Dam collapse scenario cover 53 villages from 6 sub-districts so that the evacuation victims reached 22400 people. With this amount, it can be determined that the Malahayu Dam is a dam with a hazard level 4, which is very high. The estimated losses incurred as a result of this collapse reached Rp. 515,521,114,788. The purpose of this study is to determine the level of danger of a dam, to know the characteristics of the flood, and to know the losses caused by flooding due to dam collapse.

Analysis of standard accounting method of economic compensation for ecological pollution in watershed

With rapid development of social industry and agriculture, there is an increasing demand for water resources in a watershed, which leads to a series of serious problems in the watershed such as water resource shortage, water environment deterioration, water resource pollution, etc. This paper builds an econometric model of economic loss due to water pollution in a watershed based on the basic process of standard water pollution compensation calculation of economic loss. The econometric model is used to calculate the amount of compensation for economic loss due to water pollution; a mathematic model method of water environment is applied to calculate the degree of effect on the lower reaches; thus the proportion of the impact on the areas in the lower reaches to overall impact is obtained. The amount of compensation that should be borne by all areas is obtained in combination of amount of compensation for water pollution. Empirical analysis is carried out by taking the Taihu Basin for example, and the standard compensation and the amount of compensation for the economic loss caused by water pollution between different areas along the Jiangnan Canal in the Taihu Basin are defined, which provides scientific and theoretical bases for standard calculation of the water pollution compensation. This provides a theoretical basis for solving the problem of water pollution in the watershed and the contradiction in the development of the watershed, and realizing social equity and harmonious development.

A New Method for Determination of Harmonic Responsibility Based on Quality Engineering Theory

At present, the essence of traditional methods for determination of harmonic responsibility among different parts in power system is mainly based on the contribution of relevant physical quantity on the point of common coupling (PCC) of both utility side and customer side. However, theoretical basis of various methods is of much difference, leading to a large difference in the final calculation result of harmonic responsibility. Therefore, there is no reliable approach applied in actual cases. This project aims to fill the current gap in literature, proposing a new method to determine harmonic responsibility from the perspective of economic loss. Firstly, according to power theory of IEEE Std.1459-2010 and quality engineering theory, the index set of harmonic pollution evaluation on PCC is established, and the expressions of calculation of economic loss are obtained. Secondly, collecting relevant data on PCC, the parameters of Norton equivalent models of utility side and customer side are obtained by the reference impedance method, then contributions of corresponding physical quantity on PCC can be analyzed. Based on relevant expressions of economic loss, calculation results of economic loss are all obtained. At the same time, values of harmonic responsibility of utility side and customer side are calculated. Finally, new adjustment scheme of rewarding-penalizing electricity charge (RPEC) is discussed and compared with other traditional schemes. After comparison, Results of comparative analysis show that the new adjustment scheme can not only increase the penalty for harmonics but also reflect commodity characteristic of electricity energy. In this manner, calculation result of electricity charge is more reasonable. Hence, electricity environment on PCC can be improved.

Damage modelling against non-targeted use of agricultural lands

The article presents the method for the assessment of the amount of improper use (diversion) of agricultural lands at the regional and municipal district levels. The purpose of the research is to improve the method for the calculation of economic loss caused by the diversion of agricultural lands. As a result of the research three kinds of works were distinguished characterized by a different damage structure and a period of time during which the agricultural lands are being occupied. For each of them a different method to assess the economic loss and the formula for its calculation is suggested. The research results are validated within Samara region.

Methodology of evaluating economic losses resulting from partial loss of the air ecosystem’s assimilative capacity

Nowadays the ecosystem approach is widely applied in many countries globally to evaluate economic losses from pollution of the natural environment. In Ukraine, it is reasonable to develop both the methodology of evaluation of economic losses from pollution of the natural environment and the methodology of calculation of correlating coefficients of ecosystems’ assimilative properties for differentiation of the volumes of repayment of economic losses from pollution of nature. The following methods were used in the research: economic and mathematical modeling – for formalization of the evaluation of economic losses from partial loss of the air ecosystem’s assimilative capacity; synthesis and analysis, system approach – for analysis of existing mathematical models, evaluation of economic losses from air pollution and forming of institutional environment of calculation of economic losses from partial loss of the air ecosystem’s assimilative capacity; inductive – for making conclusions over the best methodological approach to be used for calculation of oxygen production costs. The condition of the institutional environment is analyzed, including the regulatory and organizational maintenance of evaluation of economic losses from air pollution. The paper proves that the existing relevant institutional environment is partially coordinated with international formal rules and organizational structures, which evaluate such economic losses; however, their further efficient evaluation requires timely transformation based on the ecosystem approach to EU directives. The recommendations regarding the institutionalization of the process of ecosystem calculation of caused and prevented losses from the partial loss of the air ecosystem’s assimilative capacity are suggested: application of 2008/50/EU Directive of European Parliament and Council as of May 21, 2008 on Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe; review of the amounts of harmful substances TLV in the air; the need to take into account certain factors while calculating economic losses from air pollution (including the calculation of damage to life and health of each person due to air pollution), approval of the documents already developed and adopted but suspended by the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine, etc. New methodological approaches to alternative evaluation of economic losses from partial loss of the air ecosystem’s assimilative capacity as opposed to the current one are suggested, including methodological approaches to calculation of the oxygen and nitrogen production costs on the basis of the carbon offsets realization; methodological approaches to calculation of the oxygen production costs based on installation of artificial photosynthesis; methodological approaches to calculation of the oxygen production costs based on natural photosynthesis – planting and conservation of forests; methodological approaches to calculation of the oxygen and nitrogen “production” costs in metallurgical production; methodological approaches to calculation of prevented economic losses from partial loss of the air ecosystem’s assimilative capacity, which are manifested in the long run or those of indirect nature.

A systematic review on modelling approaches for economic losses studies caused by parasites and their associated diseases in cattle.

Parasites reside inside or outside their hosts and get host nutrition and blood. Here, we have emphasized economic losses in cattle caused by parasitic diseases due to ecto- and endo- parasites (flies, ticks, mites and helminths). We have outlined different methods/models including economic evaluation techniques and dynamic analysis as a major class, used for the calculation of economic losses caused by parasites in cattle. According to already conducted studies, a decrease in production is mentioned in quantity and percentage while financial losses are expressed in the form of account with respect to per head, herd or for the specific study area. The parasites cause the reduced production and financial losses due to control, treatment and mortality costs. We calculated the average decrease in milk production and organ condemnation as 1.16 L animal-1 day-1 and 12.95%, respectively, from overall cattle parasitic infections. Moreover, the average calculated financial and percentage losses were US$ 50.67 animal-1 year-1 and 17.94%, respectively. Economically important parasitic diseases mentioned here are caused by specific spp. of protozoans and helminths according to data collected from the literature. Protozoan diseases include tick-borne diseases, coccidiosis, neosporosis, trypanosomiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Losses due to tick-borne infections were encountered for decreased milk production, mortality, treatment and control. Losses from coccidiosis were due to decreased weight gain, treatment costs and mortality. While abortion losses were encountered in neosporosis. Trypanosomiasis caused losses due to a decrease in milk yield. Moreover, only diagnostic (conventional or molecular techniques) cost was taken into account for cryptosporidiosis. Economically important nematode parasites are Oesophagostomum spp., Cooperia spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Strongyloides spp., Ostertagia spp. and Haemonchus placei. Due to the zoonotic importance of echinococcosis, Echinococcus granulosus is the most economically important cestode parasite. Losses caused by echinococcosis were due to organ condemnation, carcass weight loss and decreases hide value, milk production and fecundity. While, fascioliasis is one of the most economically important trematodal disease, which causes cirrhosis of the liver due to parasite migration, and thus, the organ becomes inedible. So, it would be helpful for farmers and researchers to approach these methods/models for calculation of parasitic losses and should adopt suitable measures to avoid long-term economic losses.

Оцінка економічних втрат через передчасну смертність населення України працездатного віку

Actuality of the article is related to the fact that prevalence of infectious diseases and death rate, in particular through the inefficient way of life, like the excessive use of alcohol, tobacco, stresses and other external (exogenous) reasons, acquire in the world of scales an epidemic and result in the losses of economy. Therefore, the estimation of losses of GDP through a premature death rate due to the factors of behavior acquires an important value. The aim of the article is the estimation of economic losses through the premature death rate of population of Ukraine of capable working age for exogenous (factors of behavior) reasons. The economic table of death rate (on the basis of calculation of vital potential of population of capable working age) is built. The estimation of volumes of consumption and production in every age-related group of capable of working citizens and conducted calculation of economic losses are carried out through the extraordinarily high death rate of capable working population as a result of exogenous reasons. Attention is accented on the problem of high level of morbidity and death rate, including due to violation of rules of travelling motion, excessive use of alcohol, tobacco, suicide and others like that, that presents a huge danger for functioning of economy of Ukraine. Losses are expected in men-years for the population of capable working age on external reasons of death. The ponderable direction of reduction of economic losses through a premature death rate is motivation of population of Ukraine, especially their productive part to self-preservation of health. Hypothetical socio-economic effects are expected to Ukraine due to the increase of level of self-preservation of population of capable of working age. It is found out, that huge backlogs for development of economy is an economy of principal items of charges of Fund of social security of Ukraine, in particular from reduction of level of productive traumatism and morbidity of citizens.

Economic Impact of Genotype- Xiii Newcastle Disease Virus Infection on Commercial Vaccinated Layer Farms in India

Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the most catastrophic diseases of poultry and has potential to cause enormous economic losses in the poultry industry. There were several outbreaks of ND recorded in India; however, the economic impact of ND on poultry industry remains unclear and demanded calculation of economic losses due to ND among the commercial layer in the India. This paper analyses the economic losses among a total of thirteen flocks of eleven layer farms were ND outbreak reported during the period January 2013 to July 2014. A new economic model was developed to calculate economic losses occurred due to mortality, vaccination, production lost, treatment and biosecurity measures of individual layer flocks. Total economic losses in all the layer flocks were 3719223 rupees. Loss from mortality was contributed 2998105 rupees out of total economic loss. Highest 80.61 percent and lowest 0.70 percent out of total economic loss was documented due to mortality and biosecurity measure respectively. In India, ND is leading to enormous economic loss among commercial poultry farmer inspite of stringent vaccination against ND. The generation of valuable data from this study will be useful to calculate global economic loss due to Newcastle disease in the poultry industry.

Estimation of economic loss due to food poisoning outbreaks.

Food poisoning outbreaks frequently occur in many countries resulting in economic loss. A formula for calculation of economic loss due to food poisoning outbreaks in Indonesia was developed. Estimation of the loss was developed based on experiences in several countries. Related data were also collected from local health facilities, food industry officials, and other sources to improve the accuracy of the formula. Calculation of the economic loss was performed based on cases of food poisoning outbreaks recorded in 2013. Economic loss was estimated based on direct health-care costs, direct non-health-care costs, and indirect non-health-care costs. The economic loss of food poisoning outbreaks in Indonesia in 2013 was approximately US$ 78 million. The high-cost of economic loss due to food poisoning outbreaks suggests a need for additional and serious efforts for controlling all aspects of food safety.

Determining Business Interruption Losses for Small Business

Business interruption insurance often referred to as lost profit or loss income insurance is written and purchased to protect a business for when its operations are interrupted and income is reduced due to the occurrence of a covered peril. The determination of the actual economic loss can be difficult and controversial. The loss computation depends on the determination of what the sales would have been had there been no loss event and what expenses should be subtracted from the estimated sales. In this paper, we discuss the issues with business interruption claims, and theoretically correct approach to measure a firm’s loss due to an interruption in operations from a covered peril. We present an example showing calculation of economic loss due to business interruptions.

PEDESTRIAN ROBOT

In the paper there are analyzes the major drawback of pedestrian crossings, namely, interruption of vehicles moving flow on the highway. It is given a calculation of economic losses in the conflict “pedestrian-vehicle” on a controlled pedestrian crossing. It is proposed a radical solution of this problem by setting the bus system “Walking Robot”, which quickly and safely move pedestrians to the opposite side of the highway with minimal disruption of a highway traffic flow.

Economic losses from soil degradation in agricultural area in Albania

Soildegradationis aserious and widespread problemin Albania. Itmanifests itselfin manyformsandcauses arange ofeffects. The aim of this study was to analyze the economic losses from soil erosion and compaction in relationship to agriculture in Albania. On-site effects of these two degradative processes affect farmers directly through reducingproductionand increasingthe costsof farming. Calculation ofeconomic losses was performed by using the replacement and lost production methods. According to our assessments, the wheat and maize yield losses due to the soil compaction are112 164 tons or US$ 40.2 million, and the plant nutrient losses due to the water erosion are 69 609 tons or US$ 98million. Economic losses from the erosion and compaction in the agricultural area in Albania are at least US$ 138.2 million per year or about 5.5% of the agricultural GDP. Based on the assessed economic losses from soil degradation, it can be concluded that the soil conservation in Albania is economically viable.    

Estimating restricted mean job tenures in semi-competing risk data compensating victims of discrimination

When plaintiffs prevail in a discrimination case, a major component of the calculation of economic loss is the length of time they would have been in the higher position had they been treated fairly during the period in which the employer practiced discrimination. This problem is complicated by the fact that one’s eligibility for promotion is subject to termination by retirement and both the promotion and retirement processes may be affected by discriminatory practices. This semi-competing risk setup is decomposed into a retirement process and a promotion process among the employees. Predictions for the purpose of compensation are made by utilizing the expected promotion and retirement probabilities of similarly qualified members of the nondiscriminated group. The restricted mean durations of three periods are estimated—the time an employee would be at the lower position, at the higher level and in retirement. The asymptotic properties of the estimators are presented and examined through simulation studies. The proposed restricted mean job duration estimators are shown to be robust in the presence of an independent frailty term. Data from the reverse discrimination case, Alexander v. Milwaukee, where White-male lieutenants were discriminated in promotion to captain are reanalyzed. While the appellate court upheld liability, it reversed the original damage calculations, which heavily depended on the time a plaintiff would have been in each position. The results obtained by the proposed method are compared to those made at the first trial. Substantial differences in both directions are observed.