Calcium Oxide Catalyst Research Articles

Optimization of biodiesel production from Croton Macrostachyus seed oil with calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst and Characterization: Potential assessment of seed and kernel

This study investigates the use of Croton macrostachyus (CMS), a widely available, fast-growing, non-edible plant common in Ethiopia’s secondary forests and less productive lands, as a biodiesel feedstock. The research compared oil yields from the seed and kernel, assessed the oxidation stability of the resulting biodiesel, and conducted transesterification using a novel combination of a CaO catalyst with methanol, which had not been explored in previous studies. Oil yield was obtained 40.8 % from the seed and 50.3 % from the kernel. Calcium oxide (CaO) was derived from eggshells through a calcination process and characterized using BET, SEM-EDX, and FTIR techniques to assess its suitability as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) based on the response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the reaction parameters, including reaction time (60–120 min), methanol to oil molar ratio (4:1 – 12:1), and catalyst concentration (1 % – 5 %), while the reaction temperature (60 °C) and stirring speed (450 rpm) were kept constant. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the coefficients of determination (R2 and R2 adj) were 99.42 % and 98.38 %, respectively, indicating a strong correlation between experimental and predicted values. The optimum conditions identified for maximum yield of CMS biodiesel (98.314 %) were a methanol to oil molar ratio of 8.44:1, a catalyst concentration of 2.78 %, and a reaction time of 108 min. The oxidation stability of the CMS biodiesel was obtained an induction time of 2.3 h but was enhanced to 16.17 h due to the addition of TBHQ antioxidant. All physiochemical properties were compared with ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 biodiesel standards, demonstrating that the biodiesel produced is suitable for internal combustion engine applications.

Comparative Studies on Methyl Ester Production from Pretreated Sludge Palm Oil Using Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Base Catalysts

A heterogeneous base catalyst transesterification process with a calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst was performed to produce high-purity methyl ester (ME) from pretreated sludge palm oil (PSPO) derived from sludge palm oil (SPO). Additionally, a comparative analysis was conducted with potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a homogeneous base catalyst to assess the distinctions between heterogeneous and homogeneous base catalysts. The response surface methodology (RSM) was utilized to determine the optimal and recommended conditions for both transesterification processes. For heterogeneous transesterification, a varying CaO catalyst loading (10–60 wt.%), methanol (25–65 wt.%), and reaction time (60–180 min) were essential parameters. Meanwhile, homogeneous transesterification involved investigating the KOH catalyst loading (1–3 wt.%), methanol (1.8–5.5 wt.%), and reaction time (20–60 min). For the heterogeneous-base-catalyzed reaction, the recommended conditions were as follows: a molar ratio of methanol to oil of 5.83:1 (41.61 wt.%), 31.3 wt.% CaO, and a reaction time of 119.0 min, which resulted in a ME purity of 96.51 wt.%. The optimal conditions for homogeneous transesterification were a molar ratio of methanol to oil of 0.49:1 (3.45 wt.%), a 40 min reaction time, and a 1.39 wt.% KOH concentration, which achieved 96.59 wt.% ME and met the standard.

Sustainable biodiesel production from Cassia javanica oil with eggshell-derived catalyst: optimization, engine performance, and emission study

ABSTRACT As global energy demand rises, it is crucial to explore sustainable alternatives. Biodiesel emerges as a safe, reusable, and eco-friendly energy source. It offers a greener option to petro-diesel while maintaining reliable performance. This study focuses on producing biodiesel from novel non edible feedstock Cassia javanica seeds. It uses a calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst derived from eggshells. CaO, a highly active base catalyst, was confirmed through various analyses. Using Cassia javanica seed oil as a source of non-edible methyl ester, this study optimizes transesterification parameters. A yield of 90.14% was achieved by transesterifying Cassia javanica oil at 60°C with 2% catalyst and 15:1 methanol to oil ratio. Based on the results, Cassia javanica methyl esters were found to conform to ASTM D6751 and EN 14,214 standard specifications, with kinematic viscosity of 3.556 mm2/s and acid value of 0.41 mg KOH/g, cloud point of −4°C, pour point of −2°C, flash point of 148°C and cetane index of 59 min. The biodiesel properties were also estimated. Tests revealed that blends had lower emissions and improved engine performance compared to pure fuel. Higher blends showed better engine performance. The B20 blend was found to be the most effective. It enhances engine performance and reduces emissions. C. javanica could be a viable source of biodiesel production and engine operation. As a result of sensitivity analyses, NPV varied with feedstock costs and biodiesel selling prices. In India, interventions are needed to make B20 policy based on second-generation technology profitable. The policy with feedstocks from the second generation of technology is technically viable, but interventions are needed to make it economically viable.

Biodiesel from Crude Palm Oil: A Sustainable Development Strategy for Energy Security

The study investigates the synthesis process, catalyst preparation, and implications of CPO biodiesel production, focusing on energy security, environmental sustainability, and greenhouse gas emissions reduction. The study uses eggshell-derived calcium oxide (CaO) catalysts for catalyst preparation, demonstrating a novel approach to catalyst synthesis. Results show consistent biodiesel yields of 78.6%, demonstrating the efficiency of the synthesis process. The study also highlights the environmental benefits of CPO biodiesel production, including reduced carbon emissions and sustainable cultivation practices. The study emphasizes the potential of CPO biodiesel as a sustainable energy solution, paving the way for a cleaner, more resilient future.

CaO catalysts supported on ZSM-5 zeolite for biodiesel production via transesterification of rapeseed oil

This paper deals with the effect of Si/Al ratio and form of zeolite support on the catalytic properties of the CaO catalysts in transesterification reaction of rapeseed oil with methanol. The reaction was conducted at 180 and 220 °C. To get the intended purposes of the work a various calcium oxide (CaO) catalysts supported on the ammonium and hydrogen forms of ZSM-5 zeolites with different Si/Al ratios were prepared by impregnation method. The results showed that the most active zeolite-based catalyst was 10%CaO/ZSM-5 (Si/Al = 50) system in the transesterification reaction at both temperatures 180 and 220 °C, which exhibited triglycerides (TG) conversion equal to 72.7 and 95.2% and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) yield of 56.9 and 91.1%, respectively. High reactivity of this catalyst is explained by its acid-base properties, crystallite size of active phase, large external surface area and uniform distribution of the CaO on catalyst surface compared to the other investigated CaO systems supported on ZSM-5 zeolites. In addition, the analysis of the product obtained in the transesterification process carried out on the 10% CaO/ZSM-5 (Si/Al = 280) catalyst at 220 °C confirmed the presence of the following methyl esters of higher fatty acids: methyl oleate, methyl linoleate, methyl linolenate, methyl stearate, methyl eicosenoate, methyl palmitate, methyl palmitoleate, methyl nervonate and methyl arachidate.

Electrohydrodynamic processing in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil

In this paper we describe the design, creation, and development of immobilizing calcium oxide (CaO) catalysts onto degradable polymeric mats for environmentally friendly biodiesel production. The polyethersulfone (PES) fiber mats was prepared by electrospinning technique, in which immobilized CaO particles were physically entrapped on the fibers. Immobilized and free-flowing CaO catalysts were later successfully used in the transesterification of fresh and waste canola oil into biodiesel. Entrapped CaO particles in the PES fibers were able to be re-used up to six times in the conversion of triglycerides from fresh canola oil into biodiesel, while transesterification process of waste oil was successfully repeated with immobilized CaO for four times. The use of electrospinning technique allows the creation of a degradable, easily separable and reusable catalysts, which provides a sustainable method for future transesterification reactions of waste oil.

Heterogeneous Calcium Oxide Catalytic Filaments for Three-Dimensional Printing: Preparation, Characterization, and Use in Methyl Ester Production.

This study aimed to investigate heterogeneous catalytic filaments of calcium oxide (CaO) for fused deposition modeling three-dimensional (3D) printers. The CaO catalysts were blended with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic to form catalytic filaments. A single-screw filament extruder was used to prepare the filaments, following which their mechanical properties, thermal properties, morphology, catalytic characteristics in biodiesel production, and reusability were evaluated. In accordance with the results, a maximum CaO catalyst content of 15 wt % was recommended to be blended in the ABS pellet. The hardness and compressive strength of these catalytic filaments were shown to be improved. Subsequently, the catalytic filaments with the highest CaO content (15 wt %) were used to produce methyl ester from pretreated sludge palm oil through the transesterification process. To determine the recommended conditions for achieving the highest purity of methyl ester in biodiesel, the process parameters were optimized. A methyl ester purity of 96.58 wt % and a biodiesel yield of 79.7 wt % could be achieved under the recommended conditions of a 9.0:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 75.0 wt % catalytic filament loading, and 4.0 h reaction time. Furthermore, the reusability of the 15 wt % CaO catalytic filaments was evaluated in a batch process with multiple transesterification cycles. The results indicated that the purity of methyl ester dropped to 95.0 wt % only after the fourth cycle. The method used in this study for preparing and characterizing CaO catalytic filaments can potentially serve as a novel approach for constructing biodiesel reactors using 3D printing technology.

Green synthesis of metal oxides (CaO-K2O) catalyst using golden apple snail shell and cultivated banana peel for production of biofuel from non-edible Jatropha Curcas oil (JCO) via a central composite design (CCD)

The use of biomass as a renewable, sustainable, and eco-friendly energy source is now widely recognized as a potential solution for a variety of environmental problems. To develop biodiesel production, cost-effective feedstocks such as agricultural waste, food waste, and non-edible/waste cooking oil were utilized. A heterogeneous solid base catalyst was synthesized by calcining a mixture of waste golden apple snail shell (Pomacea canaliculata) and cultivated (Musa sapientum) banana peel. In transesterification process, potassium oxide (K2O) derived from banana peel is used as a cocatalyst to improve the catalytic activity of calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst derived from waste shell. The innovative CaO-K2O catalyst was investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique. The morphology and elemental composition of calcium (Ca), potassium (K), and oxygen (O) in the catalyst were validated by field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The CaO catalyst exhibited a BET surface area of 10.88 m2/g, which was enhanced to 14.62 m2/g upon combination with K2O. The Hammett indicator of CaO catalyst fell between 7.2 < H_< 9.8. However, the CaO-K2O catalyst exhibited a higher value of 15.0 < H_< 18.4, which could be attributed to the phase transition from CaO to CaO-K2O. To investigate the effects of catalyst concentration, ethanol/oil molar ratio, and transesterification time on the yield of fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE). The optimal conditions for FAEE synthesis were determined using a central composite design (CCD) approach with response surface methodology (RSM). The regression equation obtained for the CCD model has a determination coefficient (R2) of 0.9921, indicating that this model is well-fitted. At 3.69 wt% catalyst concentration, 19.48:1 ethanol/oil molar ratio, and 1.80 h transesterification time, the highest FAEE yield from Jatropha Curcas oil (JCO) of 97.06 % was obtained. The novel catalyst has a strong yield and can be utilized for up to 6 cycles. It was found that the corresponding yield was 90 % when employing the same process parameters, demonstrating the high reusability of this catalyst. The biodiesel produced from non-edible JCO meets the criteria for standard biodiesel (ASTM D-6751 and EN 14214). The CaO-K2O catalyst is inexpensive, easy to make, biodegradable, recyclable, and environmentally friendly because it is derived from a biological residue. Because of these characteristics, it may be an appropriate candidate for the role of “green catalyst” in sustainable energy production.

Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using calcium oxide derived from scallop shell waste

Abstract Biodiesel is one of the alternative forms of diesel fuel and can be obtained using the transesterification process of waste cooking oil with a catalyst to accelerate the reaction. The heterogeneous catalyst from waste scallop shells is used due to its potential for being reused in the subsequent transesterification reactions. Heterogeneous catalysts can also be recycled, contributing to their environmentally friendly nature. This study aims to identify the performance of recycling a calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst from scallop shell waste on synthesis biodiesel. The method used is the transesterification method with the basic ingredients of waste cooking oil using a CaO catalyst. Then, after the transesterification process is complete, the catalyst is separated from the biodiesel and recycled to be reused in the transesterification process up to five times. The biodiesel samples obtained are identified for yield value, physico-chemical properties, thermal properties and performance. X-ray diffraction characterization results for the CaO catalyst show that it has a crystal size of 67.83 nm. Scanning electron microscope characterization shows that it has spherical particle shapes. Fourier transform infrared characterization shows the presence of Ca–O bonds. The highest biodiesel yield value of 74.23% is obtained in biodiesel Cycle 1. The flash point value of biodiesel samples ranges from 141.2°C to 149°C. Further, all of the biodiesel samples exhibit a cetane number of 75. The highest lower heating value of 38.22 MJ/kg is obtained in biodiesel Cycle 1 and the viscosity of the biodiesel samples ranges from 5.65 to 5.88 cSt. The density of the biodiesel samples ranges from 881.23 to 882.92 kg/m3. Besides, ester functional groups (C=O) and methyl functional groups have been successfully formed in all samples, with the methyl oleate compound observed as dominating the biodiesel samples. The cloud point value of the biodiesel samples ranges from 12°C to 13°C, and their pour point value ranges from 10°C to 12°C. The lead content in biodiesel is 0.8826 mg/kg. The lowest sulphur content is obtained from biodiesel Cycles 1 and 2 at 0.005%. Performance tests show that biodiesel has lower torque and brake power values than commercial diesel fuel and higher specific fuel consumption values than commercial diesel fuel.

Utilization of Dairy Waste Scum Oil for Microwave-Assisted Biodiesel Production over KOH-Waste Eggshell based Calcium Oxide Catalyst

The sustainability can be maintained by utilizing the available waste as feedstock and catalysts such as dairy and eggshell waste respectively for biodiesel production. In this study, the calcium oxide (CaO) synthesized from calcined eggshell was doped with potassium hydroxide (KOH-ECaO) via wet impregnation method and analyzed the catalyst performance on biodiesel production from dairy waste scum oil (DWSO) via microwave-assisted transesterification. The catalyst was characterized by X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy equipped with Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) contents were deduced by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The KOH-ECaO catalyst shows good potential based on the characterization analysis such as high pore size (25.5 nm) which is supported by SEM pattern analysis. The highest biodiesel production (75%) was obtained at optimum reaction parameters conditions. The optimized conditions were discovered to be 3 wt.% of catalyst, 16:1 of methanol to oil molar ratio, reaction temperature of 65°C and 15 minutes of reaction time as microwave provided faster reaction for the transesterification. These innovative results showed that KOH-ECaO could enhance the biodiesel production from DWSO which encourage the usage of waste for wealth product.

Application of super base calcium oxide catalyst in the synthesis of stearamide surfactants by amidation

Surfactant is a substance that can reduce surface tension, which has two groups in one molecule: hydrophilic and hydrophobic. These two groups, in the same molecule, have different degrees of polarity. In this study, stearic acid was amidated with urea using a super base calcium oxide catalyst in a mixture of hexane and isopropanol solvents. The study was carried out by observing two process-independent variables: the reaction temperature in the range of 55˚C, 65˚C, and 75˚C, and the reaction time in the range of 2 hours, 3 hours, and 4 hours. Optimum conditions were obtained at a temperature of 75°C and a reaction time of 3 hours, where a conversion of 89.88% was obtained. Then the research samples were analyzed using FT-IR and super base calcium oxide catalyst and analyzed for morphological properties using SEM.

Upgraded diesel‐like fuel from pyrolysis of a waste tire and its engine performance and exhaust emissions

AbstractGranulated truck waste tire was first pyrolyzed in a fixed‐bed reactor under an inert atmosphere and at certain conditions. The highest oil yield of which was 47.0 wt %, was attained at 550 and 20°C/min. The oil was separated into a fraction of 150–300°C boiling points, so‐called diesel‐like fuel (DBY), with a calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst at an optimal ratio of 2 wt %. The fraction was subjected to desulfurization, bleaching, and deodorization, respectively, at specific conditions, and this process resulted in a decrease of 75.8 wt % compared to its initial sulfur content of 5000 ppm. The upgraded diesel‐like oil (DAF) fraction contained chemical compounds with carbon numbers C6–C26. In addition, its physicochemical characteristics showed a kinematic viscosity of 3.13 cSt (40°C), a density of 832 g/L (15°C), a lower heating value of 42.32 MJ/kg, and an H/C molar ratio of 1.73. Lastly, the DAF was tested with commercial diesel fuel for its motor and emission performance via a single‐cylinder diesel engine. All in all, it can be said that the DAF may be harnessed as a substitute for diesel fuels after its further upgrading via catalytic hydrodesulfurization etc.

An improved Symmetric Chaotic War strategy optimization algorithm for efficient Scanning electron microscopy image segmentation: Calcium oxide catalyst case

The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) device is a useful tool that enables scientists to obtain microscopic images that aid in noticing the changes happening on the surface of the catalyst. Manual inspection of these images by eye. However, might not be adequate to obtain a better understanding. The implementation of the segmentation method is a crucial step in streamlining image representation and resolving the issues associated with image analysis. A new Symmetric Chaotic War Strategy Optimization Algorithm (SCWSO) has been developed to accomplish accurate calcium oxide catalyst SEM image segmentation. It combines symmetric chaotic numbers of Hanon map in exploration and exploitation instead of randomness in order to achieve the best solutions quickly.The developed method has been put to the test using a variety of tests, where different variances were applied to WSO and evaluated, in addition SCWSO was applied to Images affected with noise degradation techniques (Salt and pepper effect) and was evaluated, Next, performance metrics, including fitness, peak signal-to-noise ratio, structure similarity index, feature similarity index, and mean square error were applied and used, and tested with various CaO catalyst SEM images in order to analyze its efficacy in CaO SEM image segmentation. The tests outcomes showed that the recommended method outperformed competing algorithms and successfully segmented CaO SEM images, allowing for easier identification of the catalyst images.

Investigation of waste-derived and low-cost calcium oxide-based catalysts in co-pyrolysis of EFB-HDPE to produce high quality bio-oil

This study evaluated and compared the bio-oil yield produced from the co-pyrolysis of empty fruit bunch (EFB) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) feedstock using four calcium oxide (CaO)-based catalysts. Three catalysts were derived from waste sources, namely, clamshell (CS), eggshell (ES), and chicken bone (CB), whereas Malaysia dolomite (MD) was extracted from limestone. Pure CaO catalyst served as a control experiment for comparison purposes. Surface area (BET), particle size (PSA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) examinations were used to compare all catalysts. BET and PSA demonstrated that waste-derived catalysts (CS, CB, ES) have the properties required for co-pyrolysis to produce good yield and quality of bio-oil, whilst XRD and SEM/EDX revealed the existence of CaO compound in each of the catalysts. The co-pyrolysis of EFB-HDPE was performed under controlled conditions in a fluidized-bed reactor. All co-pyrolysis parameters such as catalyst loading, feedstock loading, gas flow, and temperature were fixed for all reactions. The study explored the effect of each catalyst on the catalytic cracking of EFB-HDPE through the bio-oil yield and hydrocarbon composition from the reaction. The chemical composition of the bio-oil samples was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis, whereas the bio-oil yield was calculated using mass-balance equation. The maximum oil yield was 26.07 wt% for ES, whereas pure CaO generated a 52.39% hydrocarbon composition, the highest among all catalysts, followed by ES.

The catalytic effect of calcium oxide and magnetite loading on magnetically supported calcium oxide-zeolite catalyst for biodiesel production from used cooking oil

This research focuses on developing a magnetically supported catalyst for efficient transesterification reaction of used cooking oil (UCO). The catalyst consists of calcium oxide (CaO) and ZSM-5 zeolite, which were synthesized using waste chicken eggshell and rice husk. Meanwhile, magnetite (Fe3O4) was used as a magnetic component. Various magnetic zeolite-supported CaO catalysts (CaZ/Fe) were prepared with different amounts of CaO (10, 30, 50, and 80 wt% of zeolite) and Fe3O4 (1:0.5, 1:1, 1:1.5 and 1:2 of CaO-zeolite:Fe3O4 ratio). The results identified the 50CaZ/0.5Fe catalyst as the most effective. The catalyst displayed a high surface area, strong basicity, and ideal morphology, thus contributing to a higher biodiesel yield of 91%. The recovery rate of the 50CaZ/0.5Fe catalyst was 88%, suggesting minimal loss and easy catalyst separation post-reaction using an external magnetic field. It also displayed superior stability, obtaining 85% biodiesel yield after 4 uses. The activation energy calculated in the kinetic study was 14.085 kJ/mol. Moreover, the properties of the synthesized biodiesel met the standards set by the ASTM D6751. Overall, the 50CaZ/0.5Fe catalyst with good magnetic behaviour and exhibits excellent catalytic activity suggested that this catalyst is promising for application in biodiesel production.

Biodiesel production from by extraction of carp fish (Cyprinidae) oil and transesterification using CaO derived from limestone and eggshells as heterogeneous catalysts

The fish market produces a huge amount of fish waste and worsens the ecosystem’s condition when dumping into the environment while the treatment to create ecologically and economically acceptable biodiesel is one possible answer. So, this study evaluates the efficiency of three extraction techniques: Wet rendering, Soxhlet, and enzyme hydrolysis in extracting oil from carp fish. The highest yields of oil extraction were 38.61, 36.25, and 22.38% in the Soxhlet extraction, enzyme hydrolysis extraction, and wet rendering respectively. Raw fish oil’s physical and chemical characteristics were investigated, and GC-MS was used to determine its free fatty acid profile. This investigation also inquired about the preparation of calcium oxide (CaO) that is efficient in producing biodiesel from waste eggshells and limestone which were calcined at 950 °C for 2.5 hr, producing stable and high-purity CaO. XRD and FTIR were used to characterize the prepared catalyst while FESEM analysis of the catalyst’s surface structure and EDX spectra analysis of the catalyst’s elemental composition were both performed. The highest yields were 91.74 and 89.21% obtained using CaO derived from limestone and eggshells respectively. The optimum transesterification reaction conditions were a methanol to oil molar ratio of 9:1, 3.5 wt% CaO catalyst, 60 °C, and 90 min.

Study of the surface properties of Alkyl-DEA from palmitic acid for cleaning and cosmetic applications

A surface active agent is a substance added to a liquid that is useful for increasing the spreading properties by weakening the surface tension of the liquid. The need for biosurfactants continues to increase along with industrial developments and increasing human awareness of good health and the environment. In this study, the surfactant alkyl diethanolamide (Alkyl-DEA) was synthesized using one type of amine alcohol, namely diethanolamine, through an amidation reaction between palmitic acid and using hexane-isopropanol solvent and calcium oxide catalyst. Surface properties in the form of acid number, saponification number, and HLB value were studied by observing the effect of the reaction variables on the three surface properties. This study showed that the best conversion of palmitic acid was obtained at 70oC and 80oC for a reaction time of 5 hours and a stirring speed of 150, 200, and 250 rpm. The relationship between reaction rate and time is directly proportional; the longer the reaction time, the reaction rate will increase. However, increasing the reaction time did not give significant results to the surfactant product. The relationship between reaction temperature and conversion gain decreased with increasing reaction temperature. The acid number obtained under the best conditions was 39.27, the saponification number was 30.85, and the HLB value was 4.29.

Canola oil transesterification for biodiesel production using potassium and strontium supported on calcium oxide catalysts synthesized from oyster shell residues

This work studied the effect of K precursor comparing KNO3 and KHCO3 and the combination with SrO, supported on CaO from oyster shell and limestone (1:1 mass ratio) for transesterification canola oil to produce biodiesel. The loading of Sr and K were 9 wt% and were calcined at 800 °C. The catalytic transesterification evaluations were conducted at 60 °C, methanol/oil of 10, 8 wt% of the catalyst for 1 h, where SrK/CaO catalysts presented biodiesel yields above 80 %. Moreover, the Box-Behnken response surface design was used with reaction time, methanol-to-oil ratio, and temperature as factors using SrKH/CaO catalyst. In comparison to using KNO3, the KHCO3 increase the concentration of CaO. However, basicity and biodiesel yield were the same regardless of the K precursor. Incorporating K into Sr/CaO increased the particle size, the basicity, and the biodiesel yield. Furthermore, the design of experiments successfully showed an optimum methanol-to-oil ratio of 15, 46 °C, and 3 h. Nonetheless, the SrK/CaO catalysts presented a reusability of only two cycles. The incorporation of Sr and K did not avoid the lixiviation of the active sites, but they may retard this process the catalyst may be more active at low reaction times.

Process simulation and economic assessments for biodiesel production catalyzed by green Nanocatalysts

AbstractThe biodiesel production catalyzed by naturally derived catalysts such as calcium oxide (CaO) and sulfonated carbon catalysts achieved high biodiesel yield at moderate operating conditions. However, very few studies were conducted to evaluate the economic feasibility of industrial‐scale production of biodiesel catalyzed by both green catalysts of CaO and sulfonated carbon catalysts. The current study aims to assess the technical competency and economic feasibility of industrial‐scale production of biodiesel catalyzed by two processes 1.) CaO catalyst and 2.) sulfonated carbon catalyst. Process simulations via Aspen Hysys were carried out to perform material and energy balances for both process configurations designed earlier with respect to the base catalyst (CaO) and acid catalyst (sulfonated carbon) used. Economic analysis was initiated after the equipment sizing and costing had been carried out. Total capital investment, total manufacturing cost, and key performances of the rate of return, payback time, breakeven point, and net profit after‐tax rate were calculated for each process. Based on the economic analysis, the computed return on investment (ROI) is 105.36%, and it has a low payback period of 0.94 year to offset its original investment. The discounted cumulative profit (NPV) analysis shows that breakeven was achieved in the 3rd year. On the other hand, for the plant that utilizes sulfonated carbon in the transesterification reaction, the computed ROI is 14.02% with a payback period of 7.13 years, and the breakeven was achieved in the 9th year. In conclusion, the manufacturing plant of transesterification reaction catalyzed by CaO catalyst appeared as the most promising pathway either technically or economically.

Prediction modeling using artificial neural network (ANN) for the performance and emission characteristics of catalytic co-pyrolytic fuel blended with diesel in a CI engine.

In the present research work, artificial neural network (ANN) is used to model the performance and emission parameters in a four-stroke, single-cylinder diesel engine combusting a blended fuel of diesel and catalytic co-pyrolysis oil produced from seeds of Pongamia pinnata, waste LDPE, and calcium oxide catalyst. The optimum yield of oil obtained was 92.5% at 500 °C temperature. Physical properties of the obtained oil, such as calorific value (44.85 MJ/kg) and density (797 kg/m3), level it by that of diesel while the flash point and fire point were found to be lower than that of pure diesel. An ANN model was then generated for the prediction of performance characteristics (BTE and BSFC) and emission characteristics (NOx and smoke) under varying loads, braking power, brake mean effective pressure, and torque as inputs using the Levenberg-Marquardt back-propagation training technique. The regression coefficients (R2) for BTE, BSFC, smoke, and NOx predictions were determined to be close to unity at 0.99859, 0.99814, 0.96129, and 0.92505, respectively (all values being close to unity). It has been discovered that ANN makes an effective simulation and prediction tool for blended fuels in CI engines. It is also suggested to predict the mechanical efficiency, volumetric efficiency, and CO, CO2, HC emissions using ANN in its future work.