Calakmul Region Research Articles

Baird’s Tapir (Tapirus bairdii) avoid human settlements and roads while searching for water in community-owned forests from the Calakmul region

Baird’s Tapir (Tapirus bairdii) avoid human settlements and roads while searching for water in community-owned forests from the Calakmul region

Water supply in artificial troughs: a strategy to mitigate the impacts of climate change in the Maya forest

Objective: To verify the functionality of drinking troughs based on fauna record. Design/Methodology/Approach: Most of the approximately 70 artificial drinking troughs were installed inside the core zones of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR). The remaining troughs were installed in communities and left under the protection and supervision of beekeepers. A camera-trap station was associated with each of the drinking troughs installed. Results: Ninety-one wildlife species that drink water from the artificial troughs have been identified, including 30 mammals, 53 birds, 5 reptiles, and three amphibians. Jaguars, tapirs, and other endangered species are some of the most frequent visitors to these sites, especially during the dry season. Study Limitations/Implications: The use of artificial water troughs is an adequate alternative to guarantee water availability in the Calakmul region. The high diversity of species that constantly visit the drinking troughs during the dry season makes evident the functionality of the water supply strategy with artificial drinking troughs. Findings/Conclusions: The drinking troughs can be a tool for various objectives in the region. It arose from the need to respond to emergency climatological events (i.e., droughts), but it has been adapted to the regional needs and other activities. It has been considered a successful management strategy in the face of climate change.

Use of artificial water troughs by deer in the Maya forest, México

Artificial water troughs have been implemented in the Calakmul region as a measure that contributes to the maintenance of wildlife populations during the drought season. The aim of this study was to estimate the use of artificial water troughs by three species of deer (Odocoileus virginianus, M. pandora, and Mazama temama) in the Maya Forest of Campeche in southeastern México. The study was carried out in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR, in Spanish) in southeastern México. Seventy artificial water troughs were installed, most of them within the core areas of the CBR. Between December 2018 and August 2021, eight digital traps were placed in eight artificial water troughs to monitor the presence of deer. The Photographic Visit Index (PVI) was calculated, and the visit rates of each species were compared by sampling year for each monitoring station. Deer activity patterns were evaluated using circular statistics to assess whether there were differences between visiting times. Watson-Williams tests were performed during the different sampling months. The density of records was analyzed to identify the degree of overlap in the deer activity patterns. With a sampling effort of 4,672 nights/camera, we captured 477 records of O. virginianus, 229 of M. pandora, and three of M. temama using artificial water troughs in the CBR. Due to the scarce records of M. temama in water troughs, comparative analyses were performed only with the other two deer species. According to the PVI, in the case of O. virginianus, highly significant differences were found between the three sampling years (H = 12.575, df = 2, P < 0.001); similarly, M. pandora showed highly significant differences between sampling years (H = 9.29, df = 2, P = 0.001). Regarding activity patterns, O. virginianus is mainly diurnal, with peaks of activity in the early hours of the day (8:00 h to 9:00 h). M. pandora was also mainly diurnal, showing the highest peaks of activity in the early hours of the day and before dusk. O. virginianus and M. pandora regularly visit water troughs, and the presence of deer in water troughs responds to their need to drink water for thermoregulation. The activity pattern of deer was mainly diurnal; it is safer for both species to move during the day because predators were recorded constantly in the study area. The degree of overlap recorded between O. virginianus and M. pandora suggests that both species are active at the same times of the day.

Jaguar’s Predation and Human Shield, a Tapir Story

Despite the risks associated, some species choose to shield behind a predator to decrease predation risk by another predator. In this study, we demonstrate how Baird’s tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) use humans as a “shield” to reduce the risk of being preyed upon by jaguars (Panthera onca). We collected georeferenced photographic records of 23 tapirs (seven of them injured) sighted near human settlements (0 to 5 km) in the Calakmul region of Mexico from 2008 to 2019. Using multidimensional scale analysis, we determined which possible factors (tapir health status, injuries, distance to the settlement, as well as seasonality) are related to the decision of tapirs to approach human settlements. To support our claims of jaguars’ attacks, we described the pattern of injuries believed to have been inflicted by jaguars on tapirs, and we analysed photographs and videos of species of the genus Panthera attacking larger prey than themselves to establish a pattern of injuries and compare it to the injuries observed on tapirs. Our study shows that tapir sightings near human settlements are related to health deterioration, injuries by jaguars and seasonality. The injuries found on tapirs are similar to those caused by other big cats on large prey, providing strong support for jaguar-inflicted wounds. Further studies should investigate whether the increasing human presence in different habitats in the Neotropical region could be influencing the behaviour and distribution of prey and predators.

Herpetological diversity in Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico: species list with new distribution notes

The herpetofauna occurring in the Selva Maya is one of the richest assemblages in the Americas. We herein provide an updated list of herpetofauna species for the Calakmul region, located in the southern Yucatán Peninsula, Campeche, Mexico. This species list was compiled considering the results of herpetological surveys conducted between 2015-2019 in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, information gathered from previous literature, and sighting records from the website iNaturalist. All this information combined resulted in the identification of 109 species, 23 amphibians and 86 reptiles, belonging to 34 families. Furthermore, we hereby present new distribution records for 7 snakes, 2 lizards and 2 frogs not previously observed in the study region. Approximately 38% (n = 41) of the herpetofauna species are listed under a threat category by the environmental Mexican legislation (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010). The list presented in this study increases to 109 the number of species known to occur in the Calakmul region, and to 135 in Campeche, which therefore becomes the Mexican state of the Yucatán Peninsula with the highest herpetofauna diversity, followed by Quintana Roo with 133 species.

Waterhole use and diel activity pattern of ocelots in Calakmul rainforest, Mexico

We aimed to evaluate the temporal and spatial use of waterholes by ocelots in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR), Mexico. From 2014 to 2017, we monitored 11 waterholes with camera traps. We compared diel activity patterns with circular statistics depending on waterholes’ level of human intensity and distance to the Calakmul road, seasonality, and sex. We identified 40 different ocelots. Four waterholes were the most important ones, being 2 of them close to the road. Individuals took on average 19 days to return to waterholes. The diel activity of ocelots was 63.67% nocturnal, 20.70% crepuscular and 15.60% diurnal, and they were more diurnal in waterholes distant from the road. Their activity pattern was bimodal and it did not change between any of the categories tested. This is the first study to determine the spatial and temporal activity of ocelots in waterholes of Mexico. Ocelots are mainly nocturnal, and this pattern is conserved throughout CBR, however, they are able to adjust slightly their activity depending on extrinsic factors, such as an increased human presence. In the Calakmul region, all waterholes are crucial, and we particularly emphasize the conservation of the most important waterholes for ocelots, especially the ones close to the road.

Interference competition between Pecari tajacu and Odocoileus virginianus

Sympatric species, having similar requirements, tend to compete for resources, especially in places where these are limited. Through monitoring with camera traps in waterholes in the Calakmul Region, two competition events were recorded due to interference between the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) and the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), confirming this antagonistic behavior as a strategy to access a shared and limited resource in this zone.

Perception of ranchers about the predator attack insurance in the Calakmul region, Campeche, Mexico

Objective: To evaluate the operation of the Fondo de Aseguramiento Ganadero and its effectiveness regarding predator attacks, through the perception of ranchers who operate in the area of influence of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Design/Methodology/Approach: The communities were visited in order to contact and ask the permission of the ejido authorities, as well as to inform ranchers about the activities. The streets of the communities were randomly covered by our team and a survey was carried out with all the available producers. The snowball method was used to identify producers who have been impacted by predator attacks. Results: Seventy surveys were carried out with ranchers of 18 communities from the northern, central, and southern regions of the area of influence of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (RBC), from October 2019 to January 2020. All the interviewed ranchers have been impacted by predator attacks; however, only 27% of them have reported the attacks to the Seguro de Ataques por Depredadores (Predator Attacks Insurance, SAD) and have obtained a compensation for their losses. Eighty-eight percent of the ranchers have received an immediate answer from the technician in charge of the insurance. Fifty-six percent of the ranchers mentioned that SAD has beneficial effects, 28% said they are not aware of its potential benefits, and 13% think that SAD does not have beneficial effects. Study Limitations/Implications: Although producers who have requested the insurance were identified, many other producers who have been impacted by predator attacks have not reported them. In many cases, the producers hunt the predator. Hunting these predators is illegal; therefore, producers decided not to provide the required information. Findings/Conclusions: as.

Monitoring of small rock pools reveals differential effects of chronic anthropogenic disturbance on birds and mammals in the Calakmul region, southern Mexico

AbstractGreat attention has been drawn to the impacts of habitat deforestation and fragmentation on wildlife species richness. In contrast, much less attention has been paid to assessing the impacts of chronic anthropogenic disturbance on wildlife species composition and behaviour. We focused on natural small rock pools (sartenejas), which concentrate vertebrate activity due to habitat’s water limitation, to assess the impact of chronic anthropogenic disturbance on the species richness, diversity, composition, and behaviour of medium and large-sized birds and mammals in the highly biodiverse forests of Calakmul, southern Mexico. Camera trapping records of fauna using sartenejas within and outside the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR) showed that there were no effects on species richness, but contrasts emerged when comparing species diversity, composition, and behaviour. These effects differed between birds and mammals and between species: (1) bird diversity was greater outside the CBR, but mammal diversity was greater within and (2) the daily activity patterns of birds differed slightly within and outside the CBR but strongly contrasted in mammals. Our study highlights that even in areas supporting extensive forest cover, small-scale chronic anthropogenic disturbances can have pervasive negative effects on wildlife and that these effects contrast between animal groups.

Human-wildlife conflicts and drought in the greater Calakmul Region, Mexico: implications for tapir conservation

Wildlife conservation efforts in the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor have focused on reducing negative interactions between humans and charismatic species. In recent years, droughts have increased in frequency and intensity in southeastern Mexico exacerbating conflicts with wildlife as they compete with humans for limited water. In the Yucatan Peninsula, Greater Calakmul Region of southeastern Mexico, Baird’s tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) are increasingly encroaching into local villages (ejidos) in search of water. This behavior could increase tapir mortality from hunting by Calakmul ejidos residents. We evaluated the trends between annual precipitation and tapir sightings near or within Calakmul ejidos from 2008 to 2019 to determine if the frequency of reported conflicts increased relative to decreased precipitation. In addition, with community participation, from 2016 to 2018 we monitored one of the ejidos where human-tapir conflicts were reported to be increasing to better describe the nature of conflicts. We did not find any relationship between the number of tapir sightings reported and annual precipitation. However, more tapirs were documented near ejidos in 2019, which is one of the years with the lowest rainfall (626.6 mm) in the last decade. Tapirs were reported as the most common wildlife species observed at waterholes (35.4%) and apiaries (32.1%). Our findings suggested that water scarcity has increased tapirs’ incursions into human-populated areas and subsequently the potential for human-tapir conflicts. We recommend that managers consider developing alternative water sources that could mitigate human-tapir conflicts and contribute to the long-term viability of other wildlife species that inhabit the Greater Calakmul Region of southeastern Mexico.

Tapirus bairdii-Associated Fecal Microbiome from a Critical Conservation Area: Calakmul, México.

Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is the largest native terrestrial mammal in the Neotropics, which is endangered primarily as a consequence of habitat loss and overhunting. Baird's tapir is predominantly nocturnal and exists at low densities which complicates field studies. Baird's tapir is a large-bodied herbivore that plays a key role in maintaining healthy tropical forests through seed dispersal in its feces. Studies of gut microbiome are essential and valuable to assess the health status of the host and the interaction with the environment. In this study, we collected fresh fecal samples of T. bairdii to analyze its gut microbiome during the rainy and dry seasons in the Calakmul region, which is a critical rainforest conservation area in Mexico. The results of a high-throughput 16S rDNA gene sequencing approach suggest that the fecal microbiome of Baird's tapir has no significant differences in composition among seasons. The most common phyla were Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Kiritimatiellaeota, and Spirochaetes. This study suggests that the stability of the fecal microbiome is related to similar feeding strategies throughout the year, and emphasizes the value of tapir in seed dispersal (and associated microbes) to the well-conserved forests of the Greater Calakmul region as biodiversity hotspots for conservation.

Spider monkey use of natural and artificial terrestrial water sources in Calakmul, Mexico

Abstract Geoffroy’s spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) satisfy their need for water mainly from food items and arboreal water sources, but climate change and other anthropogenic impacts can drive a more frequent use of ground water by this arboreal species. Here, we report 25 events of use of natural and artificial terrestrial water bodies by spider monkeys recorded using camera-trapping in the Calakmul region, Mexico. Interestingly, these events occurred during the rainy season in locations where we did not record large predators and in most cases involved adult male individuals. These records suggest that habitat disruptions such as those associated with changing weather patterns and selective logging of large trees holding water reservoirs can lead to a greater use of terrestrial water sources by spider monkeys.

Subsistence Hunting During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Case of the White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Rural Communities of Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico

Subsistence hunting for obtaining wild meat is a common practice in rural neotropical communities. Like other peasant practices disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, subsistence hunting could exacerbate pressure on wild mammals whose greater size contributes to feeding the hunter and his family. Thus, in the context of the pandemic, we assessed the subsistence hunting of the white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus), one of the main traditional game species in the Calakmul region, Campeche, Mexico, and compared this activity with its pre-pandemic levels of such vertebrate species. Based on ethnographic information and hunting records from three rural communities, we found that in one trimester (July-September 2020) of the rainy season, a total of 26 white-tailed deer (923 kg of game biomass) were obtained by local peasant-hunters carrying out hunting mostly alone. Most peasant-hunters interviewed (36 of 51) stated that they hunted daily, and only a few hunted once a week or once a month (8 and 3%, respectively). This hunting activity and modalities were carried out at night (68%) versus day, stalking (21%) and opportunist (11%) near their community. The game biomass and hunting frequency in the studied communities were twice as high during the pandemic, compared to similar pre-pandemic periods in the region. Our survey highlights the need to expand monitoring and evaluation (during and after the pandemic) of subsistence hunting on key species, such as white-tailed deer, in order to ensure conservation and sustainable use of wildlife in this important Mesoamerican region.

Using local actors’ perceptions to evaluate a conservation tool: the case of the Mexican compensation scheme for predation in Calakmul

ABSTRACT Compensation schemes are important tools to counteract crop or livestock loss caused by wildlife of conservation concern. We adopted a research action approach that focused on local actors’ knowledge and evaluations of a compensation scheme for carnivore depredation on livestock in Mexico. We conducted 165 questionnaires with livestock producers in the Calakmul region, who rated criteria covering various aspects of the scheme’s functioning. Three-quarters of participants had heard of the scheme, but only half of those knew the scheme beyond its name. Satisfaction with the scheme’s operation was associated with ease of contacting staff, whereas satisfaction with the result of application related to trust in staff. Using local actors’ perceptions allowed us to reveal criteria used for shaping evaluations. Results were presented during participatory workshops that generated targeted recommendations such as focusing efforts on information reaching areas where producers are less aware of the scheme and vulnerable to predation.

Jaguars and Roads in the Calakmul Region: Evidence of Road Crossing and Collisions with Vehicles

Jaguars (Panthera onca) suffer from the negative effects of roads, mostly significant habitat fragmentation and increased risk of mortality due to vehicle collisions. In Mexico records of jaguars killed on roads are scarce and mostly anecdotal. The Calakmul-Balam-Ku jaguar population is the most important jaguar population in Mexico, but it is threatened by an extensive road network in which Federal Highway 186 Escarcega–Chetumal (hereafter called Hwy. 186) serves as the main road in the region. As part of a study to determine the diversity and abundance of medium- and large-sized mammals around Hwy. 186, we set 47 camera traps during 2019 and obtained pictures of 2 male jaguars on both sides of the road, evidence that these animals were crossing the highway. Also, later in 2020 we found the road-killed carcass of one the jaguars that we had previously documented crossing the highway. These empirical observations occurred in areas where landscape models implemented as far back as 2010 had predicted jaguar crossing sites on Hwy. 186 and where wildlife-safe road-crossing infrastructure has been proposed but so far not installed.

First documented predation of a Baird’s tapir by a jaguar in the Calakmul region, Mexico

To date, records of predation on Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) by jaguars (Panthera onca) were anecdotal and did not allow for differentiation regarding whether the animal had been preyed upon or scavenged. Here, we present the first documented event of predation on a Baird’s tapir by a jaguar in the Calakmul region, Campeche, Mexico. In August 2017, we observed a jaguar eating a juvenile female Baird’s tapir; when we analysed the skull, we observed the characteristic “lethal bite” with which jaguars kill their prey by piercing the temporal and parietal bones with their canine teeth. Jaguars select to attack tapirs when they are most vulnerable (young or sick). Records of these type of events are important for understanding the food webs and ecology of these iconic Neotropical species that inhabit the Mesoamerican forests.

Peccaries and their relationship with water availability and their predators in Calakmul, México

A reduction in the frequency of rainfall and an increase in drought periods, as a consequence of climatic change, has caused the desiccation of water ponds (locally known as “aguadas”) in the Calakmul region. The objective of this study was to determine if the abundance and distribution of the white-lipped peccary, Tayassu pecari, and the collared peccary, Pecari tajacu, in the ponds of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, a tropical forest in Southern México, are related to water availability and to the presence of their predators throughout five years of study. Using photo-trapping technique, 12 aguadas were monitored. The index of abundance of photographic records and the activity patterns were estimated, and the presence of both species of peccaries was related through linear and logarithmic regressions with the availability of water and their predators (pumas and jaguars). The abundance and presence of the white-lipped peccary and the jaguar were directly related to decreasing water availability, while water was not a determining factor for the presence of the collared peccary and the puma. The decrease in the availability of water in the aguadas of the reserve has become a serious threat to the white-lipped peccary, one that, when coupled with other threats such as hunting and fragmentation of their habitat in the communities surrounding the reserve, will increase the risk of extinction of these populations, that at least for the white-lipped peccary, is the most important in Mesoamerica.

Moon light and the activity patterns of Baird’s tapir in the Calakmul region, Southern México

The Baird’s tapir (Tapirella bairdii) is an endangered species throughout its distribution area, however many aspects of its biology and ecology have been poorly studied, due to its evasive behavior and low densities. The goal of this study was to evaluate the activity patterns of T. bairdii, a large ungulate species from the Neotropics, in relation to moon phases in two sites with different degree of human perturbation: the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR) and the Nuevo Becal (NB) community. We monitored twenty waterbodies in each site for 18 months using camera traps. The photographic capture rate (CR) and the corresponding moon phases for both sites were recorded. The CR of T. bairdii was 0.054 in NB and 0.029 in CBR. T. bairdii was more active at night and dawn-twilight periods. In general, T. bairdii showed major activity during the dark moon phases but the differences with the light phases were not statistically significant. However, we found a trend of tapirs to be more active in dark nights and in the darkest hours in NB than CBR. The apparent preferences for dark nights in NB could be caused by the perturbation caused by human activities at site, which may have influenced the behavior of the tapir that avoid moving out in periods of abundant light in disturbed sites. More research is needed to confirm this finding.

Recent disruptions in the timing and intensity of precipitation in Calakmul, Mexico

This study addresses changes in the timing and intensity of precipitation from 1982 to 2016 from three meteorological stations around Calakmul, Mexico, a landscape balancing biodiversity conservation and smallholder agricultural production. Five methods were used to assess changes in precipitation: the Mann-Kendall test of annual and wet season trends; a fuzzy-logic approach to determine the onset of the rainy season; the Gini Index and Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) to evaluate the temporal distribution of precipitation; Simple Precipitation Intensity Index (SDII) to evaluate precipitation intensity; and the Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI) to identify the deficit or surplus of rainfall compared with the long-term mean. Overall, rainfall trends in Calakmul over this period indicate a slight increase, though results of the indices (Gini, SDII, PCI) all indicate that rainfall has become more intense and more unevenly distributed throughout the year. There was no significant trend in the onset date of rainfall or the RAI overall, though there were more pronounced crests and troughs from 2004 to 2016. Higher interannual variability and more pronounced rainfall anomalies, both positive and negative, suggest that rainfall in the Calakmul region has become more extreme. This research informs for management and livelihood strategies in the local region and offers insights for analyses of regional patterns of seasonal precipitation events in tropical landscapes worldwide.

Measuring Landscape Connectivity for Baird’s Tapir Conservation in Fragmented Areas of Calakmul, Mexico

Extensive, unprotected tracts of tropical forests remain in community territories of the Calakmul region, in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. These forest tracts face deforestation mainly due to agricultural development. Based on the graphic theory and using the CONEFOR SENSINODE 2.2 program, we analyzed the landscape connectivity between the forests of two communities and Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Derived from vegetation cover and land use classification, the landscape was characterized considering Baird’s tapir habitat preferences. The indices used showed a loss of connectivity between community territories and Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, making it difficult for tapirs to move outside the continuous forests. We detected a few important nodes for landscape connectivity and a reduced number of connections allowing potential tapir dispersal in each study site. Despite the evident trends of forest fragmentation across the Calakmul region, our results suggest that the landscapes of our study sites are not optimal, but still usable for tapirs, which are able to move throughout habitat mosaics of forests and agricultural areas. We recommend that farming practices should be encouraged over mechanized agriculture to mitigate deforestation and tapir habitat loss in the study area.