Cake Strength Research Articles

Effect of trehalose dehydration on crystal morphology and food caking during post-treatment

Morphological changes of trehalose crystals during drying and reprocessing lead to a series of post-processing problems, which result in a significant investment in production costs. In this work, the mechanism of drying temperature on the morphology and caking behavior of trehalose was investigated. When the drying temperature was too high (≥393.15 K), a large number of pores, cracks and burrs appeared on the surface of crystals. These lead to crystal fragmentation during agitated drying process. The dehydration kinetics showed that the rearrangement of the new structure after dehydration and the change of the dehydration mechanism were the reasons for the morphological changes of trehalose crystals. Caking experiments showed that the dried product exhibited higher hygroscopicity and tendency to caking. Compared with trehalose dihydrate, the product flowability decreased by 30.0 %, critical caking period decreased by 82.1 %, and caking strength increased by 13 times after high-temperature drying (413.15 K).

The influence of anti-caking agents on powder flow properties of ready-to-drink coffee during storage

Anti-caking agents are used in powder product formulations to prevent caking and to positively influence consumer preferences. In this study, ready-to-drink coffees, which are highly consumed were preferred and silicon dioxide (SiO2), maltodextrin (MD), glycerol monostearate (GMS), tricalcium phosphate (TCP) additives were added to the product formulations as anti-caking agents. Caking, cohesion and powder flow rate dependence (PFSD) tests were carried out on the 1st, 15th, 30th, 30th, 45th, 60th, 75th and 90th days and Scanned Electron Microscope (SEM) images were taken. In this way, the performances of anti-caking agents on instant coffee powder products during storage processes were determined. At the end of the study, it was determined that the powder flow properties of the anti-caking agents during the storage process were different. While the mean cake strength value of the control coffee sample was determined in the range of 93.90-159.63 g mm during the storage period, no caking was observed in the MD sample. The SEM imaging results of the samples are similar to the powder flow measurement values.

Effects of the demineralisation degree on physicochemical, functional, microstructural and powder flow properties of whey powder

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the demineralisation process on powder flow, physicochemical, functional, and microstructural properties of whey powders (WP). WP samples were produced from 50, 70 and 90% demineralised sweet whey concentrates. Although the salt, ash, and lactic acid content of the powders decreased with increasing demineralisation, pH increased. D [3,2] (surface area mean diameter) value of WP samples ranged from 28.2 to 60.9 μm, in which demineralisation increased the particle size. The colour values showed increased darkness and yellowness, attributed to the higher demineralisation process. Demineralisation improved solubility and foaming characteristics, whereas it decreased the wettability and dispersibility of samples. The caking and cohesion characteristics of WP were significantly decreased by demineralisation. Demineralisation significantly improved the powder flow characteristics of samples. The cohesion index decreased depending on the demineralisation degree increased. Also, demineralisation decreased the cake strength and compaction coefficient of samples. Mineral content decreased with increasing demineralisation, with some minerals showing more sensitivity to demineralisation than others. Scanning Electron Microscope images showed reduced caking and clustering in samples with higher degrees of demineralisation. The results highlighted the importance of demineralisation as an effective parameter to control the properties of WP. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the degree of demineralisation had a substantial impact on the physical and functional properties of WP.

Physico-functional and quality attributes of microwave-roasted black pepper (Piper nigrumL.)

AbstractThe present study was focused on microwave-roasting (300–600 W for 5–15 min) on the quality attributes of black pepper. The increase in roasting power and time decreased the lightness,L* (51.85–25.64), and a visible color change from medium light to dark was observed. Roasting reduced the powder density (bulk density – 0.51–0.41 g/cm3; tapped density – 0.70–0.53 g/cm3), flowability, and crystallinity and showed a higher Hausner’s ratio (1.29–1.42), carr’s index (22.43–29.38), compressibility index (0.22–0.30), cohesion index (13.96–34.80 g mm/g), and caking strength (5225.79–12040.44 g mm). All the samples showed stable flow, and the stability was in the range of 1–1.11. Sample roasted at lower roasting levels had higher antioxidant propertiesviz., phenolic content (36.20–79.62 mg GAE/100 g), flavonoid content (350.52–566.45 mg QE/100 g), % DPPH scavenging activity (53.97–85.12 %), and ABTS assay (2.33–4.81 mmol TE/100 g), whereas the higher roasting conditions reduced the TFC and % DPPH inhibition. The principal component analysis (PCA) and a simple least square method (SLSM) with maximum desirability were used to develop the correlation and optimize the roasting condition, respectively. Results showed that the roasting time had a prominent effect on different quality attributes compared to roasting power, and the optimum roasting condition for BP is 300 W, 15 min.

Powder characteristics, moisture sorption isotherm, and shelf-life prediction of freeze-dried recombinant Lactococcus lactis NZ3900-fermented milk powder

There is an increasing trend toward delivering therapeutics such as vaccines using lyophilized, food-grade recombinant live cultures. The addition of protectants and proper packaging could improve the properties and stability of the powder. Hence, this study was aimed to investigate the powder characteristics, moisture sorption isotherm, and shelf-life prediction of the freeze-dried recombinant Lactococcus lactis NZ3900-fermented milk powder with protectants (1:1 maltodextrin:trehalose) in vacuum packaging. The freeze-dried fermented milk powder with protectants demonstrated good flow and rehydration properties with 0.98 flow stability, 4350 g/mm cake strength, 4.45 mm cohesion index, and 89% dispersibility. The freeze-dried fermented milk powder displayed a type III isotherm curve with a predicted shelf-life of 33.7 and 46.3 days in aluminum polyethylene and 4-ply retortable polypropylene–polyamide–aluminum–polyethylene terephthalate, respectively, at 38 °C and 90% RH. The good characteristics of freeze-dried recombinant L. lactis-fermented milk powder with protectants display its potential as a powder product for vaccine delivery.

Effect of calcium hydroxide on pasting, thermal, and water‐adsorption behavior, and the flow properties of nixtamalized corn flour

AbstractNixtamalized corn flour (NCF) has gained favor worldwide due to the growing popularity of Mexican cuisine. This research evaluates the effect of the amount of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) employed during the nixtamalization on the water‐adsorption, thermodynamic, and flow properties of NCF. In addition, NCF pasting and thermal properties were evaluated to relate bulk‐powder properties to wet‐dispersion conditions. Ca(OH)2 amounts of 1.5 and 2.0% induced higher ash and calcium content as well as lower fat and protein content. Also, pasting properties and gelatinization enthalpy (ΔHgel) values, in addition to yellowish NCF, were related to Ca(OH)2 concentration. With the independence of the Ca(OH)2 amounts employed, no important differences in the equilibrium's moisture content, as well as a negligible effect of temperature on adsorption behavior, were observed. For prepared NCF, the moisture content corresponding to minimum integral entropy was not observed within the range of the aw analyzed; thus, GAB parameters are more reliable for suggesting the storage conditions. NCF with a low amount of Ca(OH)2 exhibited higher values of mean caking strength (≈1.81 N) and cohesiveness index (≈13.99 × 10−5 N m g−1), in addition to higher resistance to flow. Therefore, the amount of Ca(OH)2 positively influenced flow properties, whereas wet‐dispersion properties such as lower maximal peak viscosity and ΔHgel values were obtained.Practical applicationsThis study contributes useful information to the manufacturers of NCF concerning the amount of Ca(OH)2 needed to obtain NCF with desirable physical properties while attempting to affect thermal and pasting properties to a lesser extent. In addition, this study characterizes and provides the adequate amount of Ca(OH)2 employed the during the nixtamalization process to improve the flowability of NCF in industry during handling. Finally, the absence of a moisture content corresponding to minimum integral‐adsorption entropy provides clarification for NCF producers regarding the long‐term storage stability of NCF.

The preparation, characterization, and application of porous core–shell composite particles produced with laboratory-scale spray dryer

Objective To prepare porous core–shell composite particles (PCPs) in order to improve the flowability and compactibility of powder materials for direct compaction (DC), as well as the dissolution of tablets. Significance The results obtained are meaningful to boosting the development and further research of PCPs on DC. Methods: In this study, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC E3) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP K30) were selected as shell materials, the Xiao Er Xi Shi formulation powder (XEXS) was used as the core materials, ammonium bicarbonate (NH4HCO3), and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) were employed as pore-forming agent. Using co-spray drying method to prepare composite particles (CPs). Then, the physical properties and comparison between different CPs were characterized comprehensively. Finally, the different CPs were directly compacted as tablets to explore the effect on the dissolution behavior of DC tablets, respectively. Results (i) The XEXS PCPs were prepared successfully by co-spray drying, and the yield of PCPs is almost 80%; (ii) The TS values of PCP-X-P-Na, PCP-X-P-NH4, PCP-X-H-Na and PCP-X-P-Na were 5.70, 7.56, 3.98, and 6.88 times higher than that of raw material (X); (iii) The disintegration time of PCPs tablets decreased 10–25% when compared with CPs tablets; (iv) The values of Carr’s index (CI), Hausner ratio (HR), Caking strength (CS), and Cohesion index (CoI) of PCP-X-H-NH4 were 19.16%, 19.29%, 40.14%, and 6.39% lower than that of X, respectively. Conclusions The PCPs prepared by co-spray drying did improve the flowability and compactibility of powder, as well as the dissolution of tablets.

Studies on rheological behavior of native and octenyl succinic anhydride modified buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) starch gel and improved flow properties thereof

AbstractThe effect of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) esterification (1%–3% of dry starch) on powder flowability, functionality, pasting, and gel rheological properties of buckwheat starch (BS) was examined. The physical and flow properties like bulk density, tapped density, Hausner's ratio, Carr's index, cohesion index, and caking strength of starch improved significantly after esterification, indicating better flow behavior and storage stability. The solubility and swelling power were significantly increased, leading to a significant increase in peak viscosity and breakdown, while pasting temperature, setback, and final viscosity decreased. The esterification also restricted the retrogradation, which appeared as a lower hardness of retrograded gel. Starch gel prepared at 5%, 10%, and 15% concentrations showed shear thinning behavior. The dynamic shear properties obtained within the linear viscoelastic region showed weak gel behavior with a more elastic nature and were also demonstrated by the Power law.Practical applicationThe OSA modifies the structure and surface of starch granules to change the physical properties which help in better powder flowability of the dried starch. The findings on powder flowability of BS may help powder manufacturers to control and design powder handling and transportation equipment by preparing non‐cohesive, non‐sticky, and flowable dried starch powder. The findings of the rheological characteristics of BS gels can be exploited in the preparation and optimization of soup premix, thickening agents, food additives, and gravies. Moreover, the OSA modified gel has a low retrogradation rate, which could be used in a product like bread and cakes.

Systematic evaluation and effect of different treatments (HMT, QESD, OSA) on flow properties of Chenopodium album starch

AbstractThis study investigate the changes in the flow properties of Chenopodium album starch (CAS) after modification through quasi‐emulsion solvent diffusion (QESD), octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA), and heat moisture treatment (HMT). The native starch's Carr's index (36.92%) and Hausner ratio (1.55) indicates poor flowability as compared to modified starch that shows fair flowability. The caking strength and cohesion index after modification decreased from 1072.67 to 222.00 g.mm and 15.37 to 8.48 g.mm, respectively. Shear properties assessed at three different pressures (3, 6 and 9 kPa) showed that native CAS was less flowable (COF 22.8 at 6 kPa) than modified (COF 26.9 at 6 kPa), making bulk handling harder. The surface roughness value of the powder as measured by atomic force microscopy was found to be lesser in modified starch (92.49 μm) in comparison to native starch (117.60 μm). Scanning electron microscopy revealed the formation of spherical, smooth oval, and regular shaped starch particles after modification. X‐ray diffraction analysis showed an improvement in crystallinity from 20.01 to 29.86% after modification. Conclusively, QESD treatment significantly improved the flow properties of Chenopodium album starch in comparison of HMT and OSA treatment.Novelty impact statementDifferent treatments (HMT, QESD, and OSA) improved the flow properties by developing regular‐shaped, smooth surface, and larger starch particles with increased crystallinity. The changes in particle size distribution, particle shape, and surface roughness had a substantial impact on all flow parameters throughout a wide range of stress situations. The present research would be valuable in determining the impact of various climatic conditions on material flowability, which is an essential consideration when building processing equipment, hoppers, and silos for the bulk handling of starch.

Systematic Evaluation and Studies on the Effect of Octenyl Succinic Anhydride Treatment on Structural, Functional, Morphological, and Flow Properties of Underutilized Chenopodium album Starch

AbstractThe Chenopodium album starch is isolated and further modified by using different octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) concentrations (1%, 2%, 3%) in slightly acidic and alkaline conditions (pH = 5, 6, 8, 9). The modification of starch significantly reduces amylose content as well as functional properties viz. solubility, swelling power, water, and oil absorption capacity. The higher compressibility is found in native starch (35.32%) as compared to modified starch (17.42% at pH 9) as elucidated from Carr's index indicating very poor and fair relative flowability, respectively. The decline in the cohesive nature of native starch is also detected from the reduced caking strength (1072.03 to 367.23 g mm) and cohesion index (15.37 to 11.37 mm) after modification. Modified starch also reflects a rise in pasting temperature from 80.05 to 87.10°C. SEM images and X‐ray diffraction reveals the development of regular‐shaped and larger starch particles and an increase in peak intensity. Overall, the present findings confirm that OSA treatment significantly increases the flowability to fair flow compared to native starch's cohesive nature.

Formulation and Evaluation of Chitosan/NaCl/Maltodextrin Microparticles as a Saltiness Enhancer: Study on the Optimization of Excipients for the Spray-Drying Process.

Spray-dried chitosan/NaCl/maltodextrin microparticles have the potential to be used to enhance saltiness; however, its notable hygroscopicity results in handling and storage problems, thus limiting its application. In the present study, we attempted to introduce maltodextrin, microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), and waxy starch (WS) as excipients into the spray drying formulation of microparticles to reduce the cohesiveness and caking behavior and improve the yield simultaneously by ameliorating the moisture absorption tendency. The prepared microparticles showed a spherical appearance and had particle sizes ranging from 6.29 to 7.64 μm, while the sizes of the NaCl crystals embedded in the microparticles were 0.36 to 1.24 μm. The crystalline reflections of WS and MCC were retained in the microparticles after the spray-drying process. The handling properties were assessed to be acceptable. The formulation with only maltodextrin as the excipient showed a high moisture absorption rate of 2.83 g/100 g·h and a caking strength of 3.27 kg. The addition of MCC and WS significantly reduced the hygroscopic rate and caking strength. The spray-dried products provided better saltiness perception than native NaCl; as such, they may be promising for seasoning dry food products to achieve sodium intake reduction in the food industry.

Assessing filter cake strength via discrete element method simulations

The strength of drilling mud filter cakes is a parameter of practical relevance during well construction. This work simulates a ‘hole punch test’ experiment to determine filter cake yield stress. The discrete element model is used to predict the energy needed to push a plunger through the cake. The theoretical data is compared with experimental measurements for cakes with varying particle size and shape. The simulations and experiments both show an increase in yield stress and required energy with decreasing cake porosity and particle size. Adhesion due to liquid bridges was found to contribute significantly to cake strength. A scaling argument is established which indicates that the resistance to plunger motion comes from the particles sheared at the edge of the plunger.

Moisture and caking resistant Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides microcapsules with hypoglycemic activity

Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides (TPs) have attracted extensive attention as functional food constituents due to their bioactivity. However, β-D-glucan obtained from TPs is readily degraded by oxidation and easy to absorb water and agglomerate. The purpose of this study was to reduce moisture adsorption and caking strength through spray drying by using maltodextrin as wall materials and explore the hypoglycemic effect and molecular mechanism of TPs microcapsules. It was observed that dextrose equivalent (DE) value and concentration of maltodextrin (MD) affect the morphology, encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, water adsorption and caking strength of TPs microcapsules powder. The administration of TPs microcapsules powder prevented body weight and serum insulin loss, and significantly decreased the blood glucose level, serum triglycerides, as well as total cholesterol levels, which seemed to be related to increasing the glycogen synthesis and facilitating the glucose transportation by regulating the PI3K/Akt pathway.

Banana Powder Production via Foam Mat Drying

Banana puree is one of the main commercial banana products available in the market worldwide. However, like other purees, banana puree deteriorates quite rapidly and gets a chilling injury when refrigerated. Therefore, this study focused on the dehydration of banana puree using a foam mat drying (FMD) technique to prolong its shelf life. It involved whipping the banana puree to form foams with the help of whey protein concentrate (WPC) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as the foaming agent and foam stabilizer, respectively. The study evaluated the effect of different foaming agent percentages (5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15%) and drying temperatures (50, 60, 70 and 80°C) on the production of the foam mat dried banana powder. Besides that, the drying curves of banana puree using FMD and oven drying methods were compared. The banana powders produced were also analyzed in terms of the foam density, moisture content, solubility, color (browning index) and flowability (caking strength). Based on the findings, the FMD technique has proven to produce a good quality banana powder better than the control sample especially at a higher foaming agent concentration (15%) and drying temperature (80°C). By using the FMD technique, the banana puree has the capacity to be dried three times faster compared to the conventional oven drying method to form a more stable banana powder.

Influence of sucrose reduction and starch type on bulk and powder properties of ready-to-use powdered dessert

The powdered food mixtures are widely consumed due to their ease of preparation and storage. Although the addition of sucrose improves the reconstitution process of ready-to-use powdered desserts, high amounts of sucrose are undesirable regarding the nutritional value. Therefore, present study aimed to determine the impact of the sucrose particle size and differences in starches on the powder flow properties of powdered puddings. The caking, powder speed dependency and cohesion tests along with the other bulk properties were grouped with the hierarchical cluster. A reverse relationship was found between the cohesion coefficient and cohesion index values. The cake was not formed in samples which comprised granulated sucrose and corn starch. However, the icing sugar containing puddings had considerably lower cake and mean cake strength values. Based on the results, the icing sugar can be regarded as a good ingredient for ready-to-use dessert considering the storage, handling and transportation conditions.

Effect of storage conditions on physicochemical and microstructural properties of skim and whole milk powders

This study examined the effects of storage conditions on physicochemical and microstructural characteristics of whole milk powder (WMP) and low-, medium- and high-heat skim milk powder (SMP). Powders were stored at three temperatures (25 °C, 35 °C and 45 °C) and three humidity levels (11%, 44% and 85%) for 21 days. WMP exhibited lower equilibrium moisture content (EMC) than SMP at these storage conditions. SMP and WMP stored at 45 °C had lower EMC and monolayer moisture content than those stored at 25 °C and 35 °C. WMP had lower Tg, crystallinity and caking strength than SMP. At 85% RH, the particles became irregularly shaped, caused by lactose crystallization. Crystallization of lactose and caking of powders became prominent when Tg decreased below the storage temperature. Crystallization of lactose in these powders increased caking strength, Maillard reaction and surface free fat, particularly at high RH (85%) and high temperature (45 °C) conditions.

Changes in physicochemical and surface characteristics in model infant milk formula powder (IMF) during storage

Shelf life of infant milk formula (IMF) powders depends on product composition and storage environment. We produced model IMF powders by mimicking human milk and investigated the effects of storage conditions on surface characteristics and caking behavior of these powders. The powders were stored for 21 days at two different temperatures (25 °C and 45 °C) and three relative humidity (RH) levels (11%, 44%, and 85%). The storage of these powders at higher RH, higher temperature, or their combinations increased lactose crystallinity, increased surface fat content, altered surface chemical composition, and induced caking. The powders stored at 45 °C and 85% RH had highest lactose crystallinity and fat content on the surface. The increase in crystallinity and surface free fat also increased the caking strength. Storage at ambient temperature (25 °C) and low RH levels (11% and 44%) was found to avoid lactose crystallization and caking. These findings will help manufacturers and consumers to implement suitable storage protocols that would help extend shelf life of IMF powders.

Designing high-performance colour cosmetics through optimization of powder flow characteristics.

Explore the impact of powder flow properties such as flow energy and compressibility on the performance characteristics of foundation powders such as cake strength and pay-off. FT4 Powder Rheometer from Freeman Technology was utilized to explore various powder compositions. The three major tests performed were flowability test, compressibility test and shear cell test. The results highlight that the sample which has higher compressibility has the better cake strength, and the sample which requires lower total energy has better pay-off. Particles or samples with lower total flow energy, should have easier flow, therefore, should have better pay-off. Samples and components with higher compressibility, should hold the structure better, therefore, should have better cake strength. Talc has the highest compressibility and lowest flow energy. Foundation sample 5 has the highest concentration of talc and also has the best performance. The lower the total flow energy, the easier it is for the powder to flow, and have better pay-off. Powder compressibility correlates with cake strength which means that a sample with better compressibility consequently has the better cake strength. Samples 5 and 10 require less total flow energy, have lower shear stress, and higher compressibility, therefore, have better final performance. Both samples 5 and 10 have higher talc concentrations compared to other formulations.

Determination of the cohesion, powder flow speed dependency and caking tendency of cocoa powders

Cocoa is one of the most popular foodstuffs known for centuries and cocoa powders are particularly exposed to caking, a phenomenon of agglomeration of solid particles that disrupt powder functionality. This study aimed to identify the main powder flow characteristics such as caking, cohesion and powder flow speed dependency of cocoa powders, according to their fat content. The loose and tapped bulk density, as well as Carr ratio of cocoa powders, was determined as bulking properties for comparing and interpreting the flowability. The caking was observed in all three samples. With increasing fat content, a decrease in the powder flowability was detected. The mean cake strength of the low fat, reduced fat and full-fat cocoa powders was recorded as 110.42±1.71; 164.175±1.75 and 207.96±0.93, respectively. These results suggest that the fat contents of the food powders may be a useful parameter to describe the powder flowability.

Investigation of the effect of time on the humidity caking of food powder binary mixes using a cake strength tester and visual techniques

Caking of food powders is highly undesirable. Many food powders are powder ingredient mixes and there is little work reported on the caking of food powder mixes. This study applied a combination of cake strength and moisture content measurements, coupled with visual assessment of the bulk powder and two particles in contact to investigate the humidity caking behaviour of the powders over time. The food powder binary mixes consisted of a 40% or 80% “sticky” powder (whey permeate WP or maltodextrin MD) and a “non-sticky” powder (salt, flour or paprika). The powders were exposed to 76% relative humidity to make the WP and MD sticky. The WP mixes had weaker but similar cake strength profiles to the WP powder. For the salt mixes with both WP and MD, there was a continuous uptake of water over time resulting in very weak salt mixes. This may be caused by lowering of the deliquescence relative humidity of salt when contacted with WP or MD. The caking behaviour of the MD mixes depended on the non-sticky powder. The MD/flour mixes had a weaker but similar profile to the MD powder, while MD/paprika and MD/WP displayed a maximum cake strength after 6–10 days.