Cake Baking Research Articles

Rheological Characterization of a New Oat Hydrocolloid and Its Application in Cake Baking

ABSTRACTA new oat hydrocolloid containing 20% β‐glucan, called C‐trim20, was obtained from oat bran concentrate through steam jet‐cooking and fractionations. The rheological characterization of the C‐trim20 was conducted using steady and dynamic shear measurements. The C‐trim20 suspension exhibited a shear‐thinning behavior that was more pronounced at high shear rates and high concentrations. Its dynamic viscoelastic moduli increased with increasing concentration while the frequency at which G′ and G″ crossover decreased. The C‐trim20 suspension at various concentrations followed the Cox‐Merz rule. C‐trim20 was also evaluated for potential use in baked products, specifically cakes. The baking performance of C‐trim20 was tested by incorporating it into cake formulations. The inclusion of this hydrocolloid gave increased elastic properties to cake batters and produced cakes containing 1 g of β‐glucan per serving with volume and textural properties similar to those of the control cake.

The Effects of Ripening on the Functional Properties of Plantain and Plantain Based Cake

The effects of ripening on the chemical composition and functional properties of plantain at different post harvest stages were studied. The cake baking performance of composite flour made from the blends of the plantain flour and wheat flour at different substitution levels were also evaluated. The result of proximate analysis showed that there were slight increases in moisture content, crude fibre, and ash and fat content as ripening progressed. The carbohydrate was shown to decrease while the protein increased from 2.8% in unripe plantain to 3.5% in firm ripe plantain; it then decreased to 2.6% in softripe plantain. Emulsion capacity, oil and water absorption capacities, viscosity, and swelling capacity were found to be higher in unripe plantain flour than firmripe flour, while whipping capacity of firmripe plantain flour was slightly higher than that of unripe plantain flour. It was also observed that as ripening progressed, the drying rate of the plantain slices decreased. The result of the sensory evaluation of composite flour cake from the plantain showed that the unripe plantain flour produced more acceptable cakes than those made from the firmripe plantain flour at all levels of substitution of the wheat flour. Acceptable cakes could be produced from wheat flour substituted up to 50% with any of the plantain flours.

EFFECTS OF BAKING PARAMETERS ON THE WHITE LAYER CAKE QUALITY BY COMBINED USE OF CONVENTIONAL AND MICROWAVE OVENS

The effects of combined conventional and microwave oven baked white layer cake characteristics were studied. Two types of commercially milled wheat flour, white (A) and whole wheat (B), were used. The modified white layer cake making method was used for conducting the cake baking trials. The conventional baking times (8 or 11 min), microwave power (400 or 600 W) and microwave baking time (30, 40, or 50 s) were chosen as baking parameters. Conventional baking was applied to form the cake crust before baking with the microwave oven used to form the crumb of the cakes. The performance of combination baking was compared with the performance of conventional baking. The volume, bake loss, internal factors, and crust color of cakes were evaluated as quality characteristics. The bake losses of cakes using the combination of short oven times and low microwave power for selected microwave times were smaller than the bake losses of the control cakes for both flours. Long oven times and low microwave power increased the specific volume of cakes. Cakes baked from flours A and B exhibited similar internal properties. Oven time significantly affected the crust color of cakes made with flour A. The crust color of cakes made with flour B was similar to the crust color of control cakes. Using a combination of conventional and microwave baking produces cakes with qualities equivalent to the qualities of cakes produced with conventional baking.

Lumped model for sponge cake baking during the “crust and crumb” period

A lumped state variables model for heat and water vapor transfer within a sponge cake during the crust/crumb baking period is presented. The crumb was considered to behave like a viscous compressible mixture, the crust to behave like a porous shell. The model enabled to calculate the time profiles of the crumb state variables (temperature, water content and gas pressure) and also the time variations of the crust and the crumb thicknesses. The numerical solution of the model was used for the determination of the cake thermal and structural properties (crust thermal conductivity, gas phase partition coefficient and crumb bulk viscosity) by fitting the simulated baking curves to the experimental ones.

Measurement of Contour and Volume Changes During Cake Baking

ABSTRACTVolume is an important characteristic in the evaluation of cakes and cake quality, relating to the underlying structural development of the cake. A method for evaluation of changes in contour and volume during the cake baking process is proposed: the height profile method. Volumes of baked cakes were determined using two standard methods, rapeseed displacement and cross‐sectional tracings, and compared with height profile analysis to determine the accuracy of the new method for cake volume analysis. Height analysis values did not significantly differ from rapeseed and tracing results. The height profile method was used to analyze and calculate changes in volume during the baking process for cakes made with chlorine‐treated and nonchlorine‐treated flours. The method was also able to depict changes in contour of the baking cakes, showing definite differences in contour development between chlorine‐treated and nonchlorinetreated flours. The height profile method of volume determination is a nonintrusive method that can be employed in the study of volumetric and contour changes of cakes while they bake.

Use of applied air pressure to improve the baking properties of whey protein isolates in angel food cakes

Whey protein isolate (WPI) possesses limited application in angel food cake baking compared to liquid egg white (LEW). This study was conducted to determine whether applying air pressure in the oven during baking would improve the baking properties of WPI in angel food cakes. A special oven was designed for baking at oven air pressures up to 1.5 bar. Control angel food cakes were formulated with LEW (100/0) as its protein source and WPI-containing cakes were formulated with a mixture of 75 mL/100 mL LEW and 25 mL/100 mL WPI solution (75/25) or a mixture of 50 mL/100 mL LEW and 50 mL/100 mL WPI solution (50/50). Cakes were baked at atmospheric air pressure (AP) and at constant applied air pressure (CAP) or variable applied air pressure vs. baking time (VAP) to prevent overexpansion and collapse of WPI-containing cake batter. Cakes 75/25 and 50/50 baked at VAP exhibited improved physical, textural and sensory properties compared to those baked at AP or CAP conditions. Cakes 75/25 baked at VAP compared well with control angel food cakes baked at AP. Although 50/50 cakes baked at VAP were improved slightly over those baked at AP, none of them exhibited satisfactory properties. Therefore, additional research is needed to optimize baking conditions for cakes formulated with less than 75 mL/100 mL LEW.

Study of sponge cake batter baking process. II. Modeling and parameter estimation

A 1D model for heat and mass transfer within a sponge cake batter during a baking process, based on the qualitative analysis of the transfer mechanisms reported in part I of this paper, is presented. With respect to previous literature reports concerning cake baking modeling, the model takes additionally into account the gas phase internal convective flux, the vapo-condensation heat flux and the batter expansion during baking. The model was used for numerical estimation of the parameters of correlations representing the thermophysical and rheological batter properties as a function of the water content, of the temperature and of the porosity of the batter. The simulated baking curves obtained with estimated parameters corresponded well to the experimental baking curves for a broader range of operating conditions than those used for the estimation procedure.

Cake baking in tunnel type multi-zone industrial ovens Part I. Characterization of baking conditions

Baking conditions were observed for two different multi-zone industrial scale ovens: a gas fired band oven and an electric powered mold oven. In each zone of both ovens, parameters measured were: internal temperature profile, air velocity absolute humidity and oven wall temperature. Air temperatures were higher close to the oven wall than at the center of ovens tested. Absolute air humidity in the gas fired band oven (0.0545–0.246 kg H 2O/kg dry air) was higher than in the electric fired mold oven (0.0207–0.0505 kg H 2O/kg dry air). The relative air velocities in the ovens were 0–0.437 m/s, which resulted in convective heat transfer coefficients of 5.7–7.4 W/m 2K and mass transfer coefficients of 3.94×10 −8-5.12×10 −8 kg/m 2 s Pa. The average rate of total energy transferred to each product was 71992–85339 W. A proportion of 26–38.4% was the sensible heat absorbed with 61.6%–74% of the heat absorbed as the latent heat of vaporization of moisture. Radiative heat was responsible for 66.2–81.5% of the heat delivered to the top surface of products for cake baking in direct fired industrial ovens.

Cake baking in tunnel type multi-zone industrial ovens Part II. Evaluation of quality parameters

In addition to characterization of baking conditions during industrial cake baking, some important quality parameters, such as texture, color, density and viscosity of the cake batter were evaluated during baking in two different multi-zone industrial scale ovens: gas fired band oven and electric powered mold oven. The flow behavior of all batters was pseudo-plastic with a yield stress. The average moisture removal rates (3.59×10 −4–1.40×10 −3 kg H 2O/kg solid s) of cakes fell between those of cookies and breads. During baking, pH increased and then decreased at the late stage of baking. Batter positions (side or center) on the band were not critical for quality parameters with the exception of moisture content. Most color changes occurred 1/4–3/4 way through the baking. After 21 days of storage, the hardness of all cakes increased 1.8–3 times the original value.

Health surveillance in milling, baking and other food manufacturing operations--five years' experience.

The objective of this study was to describe the incidence of allergic respiratory disease and its outcome in terms of symptoms and jobs, across different flour-using industries. It uses the findings of a health surveillance programme in a large food organization over a five-year period. The population under surveillance consisted of 3,450 employees with exposure to ingredient dusts, of whom 400 were in flour milling, 1,650 in bread baking, 550 in cake baking and 850 in other flour-using operations. A total of 66 employees with either asthma or rhinitis symptoms attributable to sensitization to allergens in the workplace were identified. The majority of these (48/66) had become symptomatic prior to the commencement of the health surveillance programme in 1993. The incidence rates (per million employees per year) for those who developed symptoms between 1993 and 1997 were 550 for flour milling, 1,940 for bread baking, 0 for cake baking and 235 for other flour-using operations. The agent believed to be responsible for symptoms was most commonly grain dust in flour millers and fungal amylase in bread bakers. Wheat flour appeared to have a weaker sensitizing potential than these other two substances. In terms of outcome, at follow-up 18% of symptomatically sensitized employees had left the company. Two of the ex-employees retired through ill health due to occupational asthma. Of those still in employment, 63% described an improvement in symptoms, 32% were unchanged and 4% were worse than when first diagnosed. Over half the cases still in employment were continuing to work in the same job as at the time of diagnosis.

Respiratory symptoms and sensitization in bread and cake bakers.

This purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between exposure to wheat flour, soya flour and fungal amylase and the development of work-related symptoms and sensitization in bread and cake bakery employees who have regular exposure to these substances. The study populations consisted of 394 bread bakery workers and 77 cake bakery workers whose normal jobs involved the sieving, weighing and mixing of ingredients. The groups were interviewed with the aim of identifying the prevalence, nature and pattern of any work-related respiratory symptoms. They were also skin-prick tested against the common bakery sensitizing agents, i.e., wheat flour, soya flour, rice flour and fungal amylase. The results of personal sampling for sieving, weighing and mixing operations at the bakeries from which the study groups were taken were collated in order to determine typical exposures to total inhalable dust from the ingredients, expressed as 8 hour time-weighted average exposures. Data from the health surveillance and collated dust measurements were compared with the aim of establishing an exposure-response relationship for sensitization. The prevalence of work-related symptoms in bread bakery and cake bakery ingredient handlers was 20.4% and 10.4% respectively. However, in a large proportion of those reporting symptoms in connection with work, the symptoms were intermittent and of short duration. It is considered that the aetiology of such symptoms is likely to be due to a non-specific irritant effect of high total dust levels, rather than allergy. None of the cake bakers and only 3.1% of the bread bakers had symptoms which were thought to be due to allergy to baking ingredients. Using skin-prick testing as a marker of sensitization, the prevalence of positive tests to wheat flour was 6% for the bread bakers and 3% for the cake bakers. Comparable prevalences for soya flour were 7% and 1% respectively. However, the prevalence of positive skin-prick tests to fungal amylase was 16% amongst the bread baking group with only a single employee (1%) in the cake baking group having a positive test. Furthermore, this employee had previously worked in a bread bakery. The difference in rates of sensitization to wheat flour between the bread and cake bakers is not statistically significant, whereas the difference for soya flour is at the borderline of statistical significance (p = 0.045). In contrast, the difference in fungal amylase sensitization is significant at the 0.1% level. For both bread and cake bakers, the 8 hour time-weighted average exposures for each of the activities showed a wide variation with mixing having the lowest average exposure and sieving the highest. Out of the allergens studied in this investigation, fungal amylase is the principal sensitizer in large scale bread bakeries, with the main source of exposure being the handling of bread improvers. In contrast, the risk of sensitization to wheat flour is low in both bread and cake bakeries. The absence of positive skin-prick tests in the subgroup of cake bakery employees who regularly handle fungal-amylase-containing flour suggests that their levels of exposure are below the threshold for sensitization to amylase.

Work-related asthma in a population exposed to grain, flour and other ingredient dusts.

The purpose of the study was to determine the prevalence and causation of work-related asthmatic symptoms in a population exposed to grain, flour and other ingredient dusts. Where workers complained of asthmatic symptoms which were the result of dust exposure, follow-up aimed to identify whether the symptoms were the result of sensitisation or of non-specific irritation. A questionnaire was presented to 3,450 workers who had exposure to dust during the course of flour milling (528), bread baking (1,756), cake baking (209) and other activities in food preparation (957). Those with positive responses were followed-up by taking a formal history, examination, skin prick testing and serial peak flow measurement. The overall prevalence of work-related asthmatic symptoms was 4.4% (153 out of 3,450). In the group who were followed-up (128 out of 153), non-specific respiratory irritation was thought to be the cause in 90 (2.6%), whilst sensitisation was responsible for symptoms in 12 (0.3%). Of the 12 cases due to sensitisation, the agents responsible were: fungal amylase (10 cases, all associated with bread baking), flour (one case, associated with flour packing), and grain (one case, associated with flour milling). Non-specific irritation is considerably more common than sensitisation as the cause of work-related asthmatic symptoms in flour milling, baking and other flour-based industries. The prevalence of sensitisation to flour is very low (less than 1 in 1,000) in all these industries. The principal sensitiser encountered in modern plant bakeries appears to be fungal amylase. The most important source of exposure to fungal amylase is probably the debagging, sieving, weighing and mixing of bread improvers.

Cake Baking in Conventional, Impingement and Hybrid Ovens

ABSTRACTWhite layer cakes were baked in three types of air impingement ovens, a hybrid (microwave/air impingement) oven, and a reel oven. Cakes were evaluated based on volume, crust color, and texture. Oven heat transfer rates were measured directly, and ranged from 22.8 to 84.8 J/s m2C° for top and from 17.4 to 110.9 for bottom surfaces, exposed in the different ovens, with the conventional reel oven having the lowest values. An RSM design was used to establish optimum baking conditions for each oven. For air impingement ovens, baking time was reduced by almost half but produced cakes very similar to those from the control (reel) oven. Incorporating microwaves enabled a further reduction in baking time, to one fourth. Cakes baked with microwaves had similar color, but had 15% less volumes and firmer textures than control cakes.

Physicochemical Characteristics and Functional Properties of Starch from a High β‐Glucan Waxy Barley

AbstractThe physicochemical properties and functional characteristics of starch from a high β‐glucan waxy barley were compared with those of starches isolated from normal and high amylose barleys. Amylose content of the starches ranged from 1.9 to 34.8%. There was no relationship between amylose content and water binding capacity and gelatinization temperature of the starches. Amylose content and swelling power as well as enzyme susceptibility were negatively correlated. Waxy barley starches had a lower solubility than amylose‐containing starches. High amylose barley starch registered no swelling in the Amylograph. Amylose content in starch proved to be very important for good bread‐ and cake baking quality. Waxy starches did not produce acceptable breads and cakes.The starch from the high β‐glucan barley variety “Shonkin” will be suitable as a thickening agent, but not as an ingredient in bakery products.

ON DETERMINING SPARSE FACTORS FOR CAKE BAKING USING UNREPLICATED FRACTIONAL FACTORIAL EXPERIMENTS

This article focuses on the application of the Taguchi off-line quality control procedure in cake baking. The basic problem was to determine factor-level combinations most responsible for the varied performance (in terms of height and weight) of the cak..

Potentials of biodegraded cashew pomace for cake baking.

The use of biodegraded cashew pomace processed into flour for cake baking was investigated. The physico-chemical changes during the submerged fermentation of the pomace and the organoleptic qualities of the composite cake were also monitored. There was an increase of about 50% in protein content of the pomace after 96 h of fermentation. However, a reduction of about 61% in the total microbial count after 24 h was due to the toxic effect of the organic acids on the microbial cells during fermentation. The cashew flour had high crude fibre (ca. 20-33%) and carbohydrate (ca. 16-47%) values. The composite cake made from a 10:90 combination of 96 h-degraded cashew flour/wheat flour respectively was the most accepted. The cake which had a specific volume of 0.53 ml/g lost 11.1% moisture when 38 g of its batter was exposed to 190 degrees C for 10 minutes. This cake had a calorie value of 293.8/100 g and may be useful in feeding diabetic patients who require low carbohydrate foods.

LITERATURE ABSTRACTS

Journal of Texture StudiesVolume 22, Issue 4 p. 479-488 LITERATURE ABSTRACTS First published: January 1991 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.1991.tb00506.xAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Abstract GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Rheology of Low- to Intermediate-Moisture Whole Wheat Flour Doughs. K. L. Mackey GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Viscoelastic Behavior of Aging Starch Gels: Effects of Concentration, Temperature, and Starch Hydrolysates on Network Properties. C. G. Biliaderis and J. Zawistowski GENERAL PRINCIPLES: The Dynamics of Cake Baking as Studied by a Combination of Viscometry and Electrical Resistance Oven Heating. K. Shelke, J. M. Faubion and R. C. Hoseney GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Reversibility of the Hard-to-Cook Defect in Dry Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata). (Res. Note). D. L. Hentges GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Mechanical Properties of the Soybean Cotyledon and Failure Strength of Soybean Kernels. M. Liu, K. Haghighi, R. L. Stroshine GENERAL PRINCIPLES: A New Parameter Related to Loaf Volume Based on the First Derivative of the Alveograph Curve. K. Addo GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Testing Bread Slices in Tension Mode (Note). A. Nussinovitch, I. Roy and M. Peleg GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Automation of a Mattson Bean Cooker for Testing the Hard-to-Cook Defect in Legume Seeds. D. L. Hentges GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Simulated Packing Line Impacts for Apple Bruise Prediction. S. S. Sober GENERAL PRINCIPLES: Comparison of Fourier Transform Mid Infrared Spectroscopy and Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy with Differential Scanning Calorimetry for the Study of the Staling of Bread. R. H. Wilson, B. J. Goodfellow and P. S. Belton OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENTS: Relation of Wheat Hardness to Air-Classification Yields and Flour Particle Size Distribution. Y. V. Wu, A. S. Stringfellow and J. A. Bietz FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Influence of Chemical and Physical Modification of Soft Wheat Protein on Sugar-Snap Cookie Dough Consistency, Cookie Size, and Hardness. C. s. Gaines FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Dynamic Rheological Properties of Bread Crumb. I. Effects of Storage Time, Temperature, and Position in the Loaf. J. N. Persaud, J. M. Faubion and J. G. Ponte FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Chemical and Technological Variables and Their Relationships: A Predictive Equation for Pasta Cooking Quality. M. G. D'Egidio, B. M. Mariani, S. Nardi and P. Navaro FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: The Influence of Sugar and Emulsifier Qpe During Microwave and Conventional Heating of a Lean Formula Cake Batter. B. A. Baker, E. A. Davis and J. Gordon FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Effects of Hardness and Drying Air Temperature on Breakage Susceptibility and Dry-Milling Characteristics of Yellow Dent Corn. A. W. Kirleis and R. L. Stroshine FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Changes in Bread Firmness and Moisture During Long-Term Storage. (Note). H. He FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Physical Properties of Cooked Eggs: Tensile Strength of Albumen and Membrane after Thermal Pretreatment of Raw Eggs. J. W. Goodrum FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Stress Cracking and Breakage Susceptibility as Affected by Moisture Content at Harvest for Four Yellow Dent Corn Hybrids. C. L. Weller FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Water Vapour Sorption Hysteresis and the Shelf-Life of Industrial Sponge-Cake. P. Guinot and M. Mathlouthi FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Studies on the Shelf-Life of Modified Camembert Cheese. P. Palich, W. Derengiewicz and J. Switka FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Storage Time as a Factor in Determining Physico-Chemical Parameters of New Cheese Products. Lj. M. Lalić and K. Berković FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Instron Measurement of Sponge Cake Firmness: Effect of Additives and Storage Conditions. Patricia Guinot* and Mohamed Mathlouthi FACTORS AFFECTING TEXTURE: Kinetics of the Destruction by Heat of Colour and Texture of Pickled Green Olives. Antonio H. Sanchez, Luís Rejano and Alfredo Montaiio b Volume22, Issue4January 1991Pages 479-488 RelatedInformation

EFFECTS OF EMULSIFIERS, SORBITOL, POLYDEXTROSE, AND CRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE ON THE TEXTURE OF REDUCED‐CALORIE CAKES1

ABSTRACTThe textural and sensory qualities of reduced‐calorie cakes prepared from non‐shortening batters in which sucrose was partly replaced with sorbitol or poly‐dextrose (with the addition of carboxymethylcellulose or microcrystalline cellulose to the latter) was studied. The batters were treated with different types and concentrations of emulsifier (Tandem 22H, Atlas A and MD‐SSL). At the 30% replacement of sucrose with 1.5% or 3.5% (on flour weight) of Tandem 22H or Atlas A, the cakes were of an acceptable quality. Higher levels of emulsifier treatment further enhanced the aeration capacity of the batters, but impaired the overall quality of the final product. The emulsifier MD‐SSL was found to be less suitable under the given conditions of cake baking because of the excessive aeration of batters. With cakes of acceptable quality, the calorie value reduction was in a 15 to 23% range compared with a standard full‐calorie cake.

Effects of Radiant Heat Transfer: Cake Baking in a Conventional Electric Residential Oven

In order to study the role of irradiation in cake baking, irradiation levels on the upper, lower, and side surfaces of a cake and utensil were varied. This was done by increasing the reflectance of thermal radiation in an electric residential oven while controlling the average oven air temperature by thermostat setting. Irradia tion levels were measured using a cake‐pan radiometer. Cake moisture loss and bottom crust formation were increased during baking by increased radiation on the lower cake surface. Radiation increase on the upper cake surface caused a greater degree of browning of that surface. Lower surface browning was related to both increased moisture loss and smaller cake volume.

Effects of Chemical Modifications on the Physicochemical and Cake-Baking Properties of Egg White

Egg white solids (EWS) were modified with succinic anhydride and a water-soluble carbodiimide. Both succinylation and carboxyl modification caused a shift in net charge but no marked changes in surface hydrophobicity or SH content. The surface and interfacial tensions were increased by succinylation. The denaturation temperatures (Td) of the proteins from both unmodified and carboxyl-modified EWS were increased by the addition of 50% sucrose, whereas the Td's of the highly succinylated egg white proteins were not changed. Succinylation improved the emulsification properties and lowered the foaming performance of EWS. The heat coagulability of egg white proteins at pH 7.2 was decreased by both modifications, while at pH 5.8, the highly succinylated (91.6%) EWS was relatively heat stable. The layer cake baking performance was improved by succinylation at both low (24.5%) and high (91.6%) levels of modification. Highly succinylated EWS, however, showed poor performance in an angel food cake system; this could be attributed to poor foaming properties and low heat coagulability. Carboxyl modification did not cause marked changes in functional and baking properties of EWS.