Cage Treatments Research Articles

Environment Enrichment Devices for Caged Laying Hens

Two experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy and possible economic benefits of using environmental enrichment devices (EED) to alter the behavior of two White Leghorn strains in laying cages. The first experiment compared using EEDs with beak-trimmed (BT) and non-beak-trimmed (non-BT) birds; the second experiment compared three different cage densities with and without EEDs. The devices failed to show significant effect within experiments, but when the two experiments were combined, eliminating the non-BT and seven birds per cage treatments, a significant (P=.013) improvement in economic returns was observed.BT resulted in depressed performance in the early stages of production, but subsequent economic results favored the BT treatment. Egg production in the BT birds improved, and they displayed 5.2% lower feed consumption over the entire experiment. Overall profitability of the two treatments was equal, but the BT birds had a $0.13/bird higher flock index than the controls during the last 12 wk of the experiment.Most measures of performance except egg weight and feed consumption were adversely affected by increasing the number of birds per cage. Economic returns favored five and six birds per cage over seven birds per cage.

Effects of fish predation and seaweed competition on the survival and growth of corals.

On Caribbean coral reefs, high rates of grazing by herbivorous fishes are thought to benefit corals because fishes consume competing seaweeds. We conducted field experiments in the Florida Keys, USA, to examine the effects of grazing fishes on coral/seaweed competition. Initially, fragments of Porites divaracata from an inshore habitat were transplanted into full-cage, half-cage, and no-cage treatments on a fore-reef. Within 48 h, 56% of the unprotected corals in half-cage and no-cage treatments (62 of 111) were completely consumed. Stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride) were the major coral predators, with redband parrotfish (S. aurofrenatum) also commonly attacking this coral. Next, we transplanted fragments of P. porites collected from the fore-reef habitat where our caging experiments were being conducted into the three cage treatments, half in the presence of transplanted seaweeds, and half onto initially clean substrates. The corals were allowed to grow in these conditions, with concurrent development of competing seaweeds, for 14 weeks. Although seaweed cover and biomass were both significantly greater in the full-cage treatment, coral growth did not differ significantly between cage treatments even though corals placed with pre-planted seaweeds grew significantly less than corals placed on initially clean substrate. This surprising result occurred because parrotfishes not only grazed algae from accessible treatments, but also fed directly on our coral transplants. Parrotfish feeding scars were significantly more abundant on P. porites from the half and no-cage treatments than on corals in the full cages. On this Florida reef, direct fish predation on some coral species (P. divaracata) can exclude them from fore-reef areas, as has previously been shown for certain seaweeds and sponges. For other corals that live on the fore-reef (P. porites), the benefits of fishes removing seaweeds can be counterbalanced by the detrimental effects of fishes directly consuming corals.

The influence of biofouling adhesion and biotic disturbance on the development of fouling communities on non‐toxic surfaces

Field studies were designed to examine the effect of surface type (with respect to bioadhesion) and biotic disturbance (with respect to predation and grazing) on the percentage cover by biofouling communities and on barnacle adhesion strength. Non‐toxic surfaces consisting of epoxy, Teflon™, and silicone were chosen to represent surfaces with high, medium, and low bioadhesion. Substrata were compared in a fully crossed experimental design; samples in fully caged treatments assessed biotic disturbance effects, those in partial cages assessed cage effects and uncaged panels acted as controls. The caged panels for all the surface types developed the greatest fouling cover and had the highest diversity of organisms. The number of taxa and survivorship were reduced on partially caged and uncaged panels. The uncaged and partially caged silicone surfaces remained almost free of fouling. The mean barnacle adhesion strengths for the caged treatments of epoxy and Teflon™ were less than their uncaged and partially caged equivalents. This may be a consequence of biological disturbance. The results have important implications for the interpretation of the performance of non‐toxic foul‐release coatings.

Interactive effects of habitat selection, food supply and predation on recruitment of an estuarine fish.

Seagrass meadows are often important habitats for newly recruited juvenile fishes. Although substantial effort has gone into documenting patterns of association of fishes with attributes of seagrass beds, experimental investigations of why fish use seagrass habitats are rare. We performed two short-term manipulative field experiments to test (1) the effects of food supply on growth and densities of fish, and (2) effects of predation on the density and size distribution of fish recruits, and how this varies among habitat types. Experiments were conducted in Galveston Bay, Texas, and we focused on the common estuarine fish, pinfish Lagodon rhomboides. In the first experiment, replicate artifical seagrass and sand plots were either supplemented with food or left as controls. Recruitment of pinfish was significantly greater to seagrass than sand habitats; however, we detected no effect of food supplementation on the abundance of recruits in either habitat. Pinfish recruits in artifical seagrass grew at a significantly faster rate than those in sand habitats, and fish supplemented with food exhibited a greater growth rate than controls in both sand and artifical grass habitats. In our second experiment, we provided artificial seagrass and sand habitats with and without predator access. Predator access was manipulated with cages, and two-sided cages served as controls. Recruitment was significantly greater to the cage versus cage-control treatment, and this effect did not vary between habitats. In addition, the standard length of pinfish recruits was significantly larger in the predator access than in the predator exclusion treatment, suggesting size-selective predation on smaller settlers or density-dependent growth. Our results indicate that the impact of predation on pinfish recruits is equivalent in both sand and vegetated habitats, and thus differential predation does not explain the higher recruitment of pinfish to vegetated than to nonvegetated habitats. Since predators may disproportionately affect smaller fish, and a limited food resource appears to be more effectively utilized by fish in vegetated than in unvegetated habitats, we hypothesize that pinfish recruits may select vegetated habitats because high growth rates allow them to achieve a size that is relatively safe from predation more quickly.

The efficacy of hydrogen peroxide for the treatment of farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. infested with sea lice (Copepoda: Caligidae)

The lethal effect of hydrogen peroxide in treating sea lice, mainly Lepeophtheirus salmonis, was examined in laboratory in vitro and on farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Although all preadult and adult lice in vitro were inactive at the end of a 20 min treatment with 1500 ppm hydrogen peroxide at 10 °C, 35% of lice had recovered 1 h and 85% at 24 h post-exposure. Chalimi were similarly affected but 90–100% recovered. The proportion of inactive mobile lice was positively related to concentration of hydrogen peroxide and water temperature. The reduction in mobile lice numbers on salmon in 20-min cage treatments at 6.5 °C varied from 43 to 100% depending on louse developmental stage, with greatest reduction in numbers of preadults. All lice collected from the surface water of treated cages at temperatures of 6.5 °C ( n = 29) and 11.5 °C ( n = 189) were inactive but recovery commenced within 30 min and 90–97% of collected lice were active 12 h post-treatment. There was no evidence that recovered lice resettled on treated fish: numbers of mobile lice declined and remained low after three consecutive treatments. However, the search continues for more effective and safer medicines for the control of lice on farmed Atlantic salmon.

Effects of modifying layer cages with perches on stress physiology, plumage, pecking and bone strength of hens

Summary. This experiment evaluated the welfare of layer hens housed in cages modified with perches. Welfare was assessed on the basis of physiological measures of stress (corticosterone concentrations ‘at rest’ and in response to ACTH and heterophil : lymphocyte ratios) and immunological responsiveness, feather condition and cover, bone strength, claw length and between-bird pecking behaviour. Factors examined were cage modification (perches v. standard cage), tier (upper v. lower), birds (1 or 2 birds/cage) and age (commencing at 35 v. 60 weeks of age). The cages provided a floor area of 1504 cm2 . Floor pens (2.5 by 2.5 m) with 10 birds/pen served as an external control treatment. Perches improved the strength of the femur (P<0.05) compared with standard cages but bone strength was still less than in floor pens (P<0.05). There were no effects of cage modification on any of the physiological variables or liveweight (P>0.05). The only improvement in feather condition and cover within cages due to the presence of a perch was in the condition of the tail feathers which was better (P<0.05) than in a standard cage, but not as good as tail feathers in the pen treatment (P<0.001). Overall, feather condition and cover was better in the pen treatment (P<0.001) and similar in the 2 cage treatments (P>0.05). The presence of a perch resulted in longer claws than in a standard cage and floor pens (P<0.05), and significant (P<0.01) perching activity compared with floor pens. The experiment showed that perches should be considered for use in commercial laying cages as they resulted in an improvement in bone strength; there was also an improvement in tail feather condition, which is considered by some to be an advantage.

Effects of predation on Zostera marina L. seed abundance

Predator effects on Zostera marina L. seed abundance were studied in the York River, VA, USA, using enclosure and exclosure caging experiments. Seeds were placed in cages in two concurrent experiments. The first experiment was a predator exclosure experiment to test the effects of excluding predators, using a full predator exclosure cage, a partial exclosure top-only cage, a partial exclosure side-only cage and uncaged plots. The second experiment was a predator enclosure experiment, using two highly abundant macro-benthic predators in the Chesapeake Bay: the decapod crustacean Callinectes sapidus Rathbun and the sciaenid fish Micropogonias undulatus L. Additionally, two-week long trials of sequentially protected and exposed seeds were also performed. Replicate treatment plots were sampled by removing the top 5–10 cm of the sediment surface with a suction sampler and still viable seeds in each plot were counted. Full exclosure cages contained significantly higher numbers of seeds than the uncaged or partial caged treatments. Seed abundances in the C. sapidus enclosure cages were significantly less than the full exclusion cage, but not significantly different than the uncaged treatments. Seed abundances in the M. undulatus cages were not significantly different than the full exclusion cage. The least number of seeds were found in the uncaged and partial cage treatments. Results of the sequentially protected and exposed trials were similar to results from the one-week uncaged treatments. These experiments suggest that seed predation can affect the abundance of Z. marina seeds, possibly causing up to 65% of the seed losses observed in these experiments. Results suggest that seed predation has the potential to be an important force governing the sexual reproductive success and propagation of eelgrass beds and that the degree of seed loss via predation may be related to predator and primary food abundances.

Ants remove virtually all western myall (Acacia papyrocarpaBenth.) seeds at Middleback, South Australia

AbstractAnts can have a profound effect on the numbers of seeds present in the seed‐bank. We investigated the removal of seeds of an important arid zone tree species, the western myall (Acacia papyrocarpaBenth.). The species has seed characteristics typical of other Acacia species: a hard seed‐coat and a small, white aril or elaiosome; the latter is reported to be attractive to ants. An experiment was conducted to see how rapidly and completely the seeds would be removed under various caging treatments. Observations were also made to discover the major seed removers and the fate of the seeds. Seed removal was rapid (< 12h) and was almost entirely by ants, and while our observations were not conclusive, we speculate that much of the seed supply is effectively destroyed by seed harvester ants which thus act as true granivores, not seed dispersers. Whether this matters for western myall in the long term is problematic because the species is so long‐lived; rare but successful recruitment events may well be sufficient for its long‐term survival.

Behavioral responses of red‐winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) to viewing a conspecific distressed by 4‐Aminopyridine

Abstract4‐Aminopyridine (4‐AP) is the only pesticide that can be legally used in the US to reduce bird damage in ripening grain fields. Birds that consume grain baits treated with 4‐AP (‘Avitrol’ FC‐99®) exhibit erratic behavior and emit vocalizations that presumably scare away the rest of the flock. Yet the behavior of 4‐A Pintoxicated birds has not been documented, and we do not know how other birds react when observing these intoxicated birds or what these observers learn from their experience. Hence, we examined the behavior of 15 4‐A Pintoxicated red‐winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus (L.)) and found that initial signs of intoxication occurred 12.5 min after consumption of the bait, with death following 16.3 min later. During this 16‐min intoxication period, birds gradually lost muscular control, making their movements and vocalizations weaker until hardly perceptible. Other captive red‐winged blackbirds (‘observers’) gave more alarm calls while witnessing a 4‐A P‐intoxicated bird in one room of their cage (treatment period) than they did during the pre‐treatment period. Immediately after the intoxicated bird died and was removed from the room, the observers' behaviour returned to pre‐treatment levels. Broadcasting calls of an intoxicated bird or the placement of an untreated bird in one of the rooms had little effect on the observers' behavior. In another experiment, the placement of a 4‐A Pintoxicated or untreated red‐winged blackbird or the broadcast of calls of an intoxicated bird at a feed station did not affect the number of free‐ranging conspecifics feeding, within sight of, or vocalizing at, these feeder stations. These results suggest that red‐winged blackbirds learn little from witnessing a distressed conspecific.

Behavioral and Reproductive Response of Caged Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) to Vegetation Density of a Host Legume and a Non-Host Grass

Behavior and reproduction of potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), were examined in the laboratory in response to varying densities of leafhoppers, a host legume (alfalfa, Medicago sativa L.), and a non-host grass (large crabgrass, Digitaria sanguinalis L.). A series of caged treatments with increasing crabgrass density per cage resulted in a corresponding series of decreasing oviposition and decreasing number of primary oocytes per female. Oviposition and number of primary oocytes were reduced by approximately 30% at the highest grass density. However, adult activity as measured by percentage of leafhoppers observed on alfalfa, in flights per minute, and on sides of cage, remained unchanged with increasing crabgrass density. When responses given at crabgrass densities were compared with pure alfalfa of equivalent vegetation density (plant surface area), activity in the presence of crabgrass was two to four times larger than alfalfa alone of equivalent vegetation density, with the highest increases occurring after 1700 h and with greatest crabgrass density. Results suggest that greater relative activity induced by crabgrass volatiles may have been responsible for reduced oviposition and reduced tenure time on alfalfa nearest to crabgrass in two-choice tests.

Physical contact with the boar is required for maximum stimulation of puberty in the gilt because it allows transfer of boar pheromones and not because it induces cortisol release

Two studies were conducted in which we examined the endocrine and pubertal response of gilts to boar exposure and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) injections in order to establish whether physical contact with the boar is essential for maximal stimulation of puberty because it initiates endocrine changes via a release of cortisol, or because it permits the physical transfer of primer pheromones present in boar saliva. Three experiments were performed in Study 1. Experiment 1 established that the dose of exogenous ACTH required to mimic the endogenous release of cortisol seen in gilts in response to full boar contact in previous studies was 10 IU given intramuscularly. In Experiment 2, the treatments were imposed for 31 days from a mean gilt age of 168.0 ± 1.35 days and consisted of: (1) control (isolated from boars); (2) isolated and injected with 10 IU ACTH each day; (3) daily fenceline contact with a mature boar; (4) daily fenceline boar contact plus ACTH; (5) full physical contact with a mature boar each day. Injection of ACTH caused a rapid acute elevation in plasma cortisol in all treatments and on all days when samples were collected (days 1, 3, and 5). Among gilts not given ACTH, plasma cortisol secretion was elevated only in the fenceline boar contact treatment. Overall, a significantly higher proportion of gilts reached puberty in response to full boar contact than in response to either the control, fenceline, fenceline plus ACTH or ACTH alone treatments (overall, 12/15 vs. 14/46, P < 0.01). In Experiment 3, treatments 1, 3 and 5 in Experiment 2 were repeated, along with the two additional treatments of daily contact with a mature boar restricted in a cage, and daily contact with the caged boar plus injection of 10 IU ACTH. Treatments commenced at a mean gilt age of 170.1 ± 0.61 days and continued for 28 days. The pubertal response to the two caged boar treatments (8/16 gilts) was intermediate between the control (1/7) and full contact treatments (6/7). Injection of ACTH had no effect on the efficacy of the control, fenceline or caged boar treatments. In Study 2 the treatments were imposed for 130 days from a mean gilt age of 159.8 ± 1.8 days and consisted of: (1) control (isolated from boars); (2) daily full physical contact with a mature boar with the gilts wearing a snout mask; (3) daily unrestricted full physical contact with a mature boar. The mean interval from start of treatment until puberty was significantly longer for the control gilts (30.3 ± 1.28 days) than for the masked gilts (17.4 ± 1.13 days, P < 0.05) or the full contact gilts (9.1 ± 1.11 days, P < 0.001). The mean interval for the full contact gilts was shorter ( P < 0.001) than for the masked gilts. The results of these experiments do not provide any evidence that an elevation in plasma cortisol is causally involved in mediating the stimulation of precocious puberty by boar contact. In contrast, the present results indicate that physical contact with the boar is essential for a maximal pubertal response because the priming pheromones from the boar need to be directly transferred to the snout of the recipient gilts.

Osmia lignaria propinqua Cresson: An Alternative Pollinator for Meadowfoam, in Cages

Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Hartweg ex Benth. cv. Mermaid) is an entomophilous winter‐annual oilseed crop with an unstable seed yield history. A 2‐yr study was undertaken to test the efficacy of adult, female Osmia lignaria propinqua Cresson bees as meadow‐foam pollinators. Ten, 35, and 60 of these bees were compared with a 4000 honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) standard, and a 4000 honey bee + 35 O. lignaria propinqua bee treatment. Cages were used to isolate treatments. A noncaged treatment, containing eight honey bee colonies per hectare, served as the control. No significant seeds per flower differences on individually spaced plants were found among any of the caged pollinator treatments in 1986 or 1987. Sixty O. lignaria propinqua bees produced similar solid stand yields to all caged honey bee treatments in both years. No significant differences in seed‐oil content existed between any of the caged pollinator treatments in either year. While &gt;60 O. lignaria propinqua bees may be required to maximize meadowfoam seed set in cages, O. lignarla propinqua showed potential as an alternative pollinator of meadowfoam.

The role of natural enemies in controllingIcerya purchasi in South Australia

The obscure occurrence of the cottony-cushion scaleIcerya purchasi Maskell in its native country Australia is generally attributed to its natural enemies. Twelve natural-enemy-exclusion experiments were conducted at monthly intervals to confirm the role of natural enemies. Each experiment had uncaged, open-caged, and caged treatments. The natural enemies were active throughout the year. The percentage of scales surviving to adults in the cages was significantly higher than in the open-caged treatments, except the April (first) cohort. In both open-caged and uncaged treatments, the percentage of scales surviving to adults was similar and matched the changes in the numbers of natural enemies, thus confirming their importance in controllingI. purchasi in South Australia.

Effects of grazing and damselfish territoriality on internal bioerosion of dead corals : indirect effects

An experiment was performed on Britomart Reef, Great Barrier Reef (central region), to determine the relationship between fish grazing, damselfish territoriality, and internal bioerosion of dead coral substratum. The damselfish Hemiglyphidodon plagiometopon Bleeker (Pomacentridae) was used for the study because it actively excludes herbivorous fish, particularly scarids and acanthurids, from its territories, creating undergrazed patches in the environment. Its territories simulated conditions of naturally reduced grazing. Freshly killed pieces of the plating coral Pachyseris speciosa Dana were placed under four experimental conditions: (1) within cages, excluding grazing fish; (2) within damselfish territories; (3) beneath shade tops to control for light; and (4) outside damselfish territories, fully exposed to grazers. Internal bioeroders were identified by pattern of substratum excavation and characterization of borings, and were quantified by digitizing x-ray radiographs of the substratum. Three major categories of borers were identified: Cliothosa hancocki Topsent, “other sponges” (of the Cliona viridis Schmidt species complex), and “worms” (including polychaetes and sipunculids). Variations in grazing pressure were found to significantly alter the taxonomic composition of the bioeroder community. Bioerosion by C. hancocki, a boring sponge with large exposed papillae, was found to increase significantly when grazing was reduced within damselfish territories. By contrast, other boring sponges of the C. viridis complex decreased in abundance; they were not affected by higher sedimentation in cages. The response of bioerosion by “worms” was less clear but increased slightly within damselfish territories. This was due primarily to a shift in taxonomic composition and dominance from polychaetes to sipunculids (particularly Cleosiphon aspergillum Quatrefages). The effects of grazing on the internal bioeroder community were often altered or obscured in the caged treatments; this was most likely due to caging artifacts such as increased sedimentation and decreased light. In general, bioerosion rates of the substratum P. speciosa were low in comparison to rates established or estimated for corals with less dense skeletons. Total internal bioerosion rates did not vary significantly with changes in grazing pressure. This study implies that, overall, reduced grazing pressure will lead to production of fine sediments derived from internal bioeroders. Under high grazing pressures, the addition of external bioerosion effected directly by grazers would also produce coarse sediment, resulting in an increase in total bioerosion rates (internal and external) and an increased contribution of both coarse and fine sediments to the reef environment.

Production, Physiological, and Behavioral Responses of Laying Hens in Different Management Environments

Responses of commercial laying hens to 16 management systems were examined for 10 laying periods of 28 days each. Twelve cage treatments consisted of housing three, four, or five hens in deep and shallow cages of different dimensions which provided .035 and .046 m2/hen. Four floor treatments housed 35 hens or 32 hens and three roosters at densities of .094 or .373 m2/bird, in two replicated pens each. Quantitative data were collected simultaneously for 23 production, physiological, and behavioral characteristics throughout the study.When comparing all caged with floor pen hens, caged hens had better (P<.05) egg production rates (76.3 vs. 73.9%), gained more weight, had better feed efficiency, and had greater egg and egg shell weights than floor hens. All floor pen hens had higher (P<.01) viability (98.9 vs. 95.0%), higher (P<.01) plasma corticosterone levels (595.0 vs. 445.4 pg/ml), a greater (P<.01) response to adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) challenges, and lower (P<.01) antibody titers to Salmonella pullorum challenges than all caged hens. Caged hens preened, stood, crouched, and feather pecked more than floor hens, while floor hens drank and moved about more than caged hens.This study attempted to quantify production, physiological, and behavioral traits, all on the same flock of hens, in order to separate stressful from nonstressful management environments. Integration of all measurements indicates that properly managed caged hens were subjected to significantly fewer stressors than laying hens housed in floor pens, although the hens’ well-being in the two environments could not be quantitatively compared.

Use of adrenocorticotropin challenges to indicate chronic stress responses of laying hens in several housing alternatives

The use of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) challenges was tested as an indicator of the level of physiological stress response of laying hens in several housing alternatives. Single Comb White Leghorn (SCWL) hens were challenged with intravenous ACTH injections (either .33, 1.0 or 3.0 IU/kg body weight). Plasma corticosterone (CORT) concentrations taken at intervals from 10 to 180 min following ACTH challenges revealed CORT response curves which peaked within 30 min at 34-, 54- and 60-fold increases over pre-challenge CORT levels with doses of .33, 1.0 and 3.0 IU/kg ACTH, respectively. Peak CORT levels for 1.0 and 3.0 IU/kg of ACTH did not differ; however, CORT levels for 1.0 IU/kg ACTH were significantly elevated above the peak for .33 IU/kg ACTH. Laying hens housed in cage and floor management alternatives were challenged with .33 and 1.0 IU/kg of ACTH after 10 months of lay. Cage management treatments were 3, 4 or 5 hens per cage and floor treatments with hens kept at 2 densities. Significant differences in the ACTH-induced CORT response between management alternatives could be detected following injection of .33 IU/kg ACTH, but not with the higher ACTH dose (1.0 IU/kg). These studies demonstrated that the CORT response to the lower dose of ACTH seemed to be more effective in assessing management differences, but further clarification may be necessary before ACTH challenges can be accurately used to evaluate physiological stress responses of laying hens housed in different conditions.

The Effects of Leaf Damage on the Performance of Insect Herbivores on Birch, Betula pubescens

The Effects of Leaf Damage on the Performance of Insect Herbivores on Birch, Betula pubescens

Artifactual effects of caging on the recruitment and survivorship of a subtidal colonial invertebrate

Artifactual effects of caging on the recruitment and survivorship of a subtidal colonial invertebrate

Corticosterone Sampling of Laying Hens in Different Management Systems

Plasma corticosterone was measured as a stress indicator of laying hens in different management conditions. Laying hens housed in cages and floor pens were sampled repeatedly in the morning and the afternoon. Plasma corticosterone concentrations of afternoon samples of hens from floor treatments were significantly higher than those from cage treatments, but morning values were not different. These results suggest that management systems, producing subtle adverse conditions for laying hens, are associated with elevated baseline corticosterone levels during the nadir of the diurnal response, whereas peak values may not be affected.

Performance, Behavior, Plasma Corticosterone, and Economic Returns of Laying Hens in Several Management Alternatives

Production, physiological, and behavioral data were collected simultaneously on commercial hens housed for 10 months of lay in housing alternatives of cages, deep litter floor pens, and oustide range pens. Treatments consisted of housing 1, 2, or 3 hens in small cages 3,4, 5, or 6 hens in large cages, floor pens housing 51 hens each at three densities, and range pens with 50 hens at .74 m2 (8 ft2) per hen. Egg production rates were greater for all caged hen treatments than for any floor or range groups. Egg numbers favored 2 hens per cage, but economic benefits favored 5 hens per cage. Viability was highest for 1 hen per cage and range pen groups. Feed efficiency was poorer in floor and range groups; however, body weight was generally greater for caged hens. Plasma corticosterone levels did not differ among any cage or range groups, but floor pen hens had significantly elevated levels. Behavioral data for walking and object pecking showed clear differences between cage and floor management alternatives. Preening, standing, and drinking activities were different between some treatments but not clearly different between management alternatives. Feeding activity did not differ among any groups. Although correlations between stress and well-being have not been well elucidated, the sum of the stressors of cage confinement appeared to be less than those from floor pens. Therefore, it was concluded that the well-being of hens in cages was equal to or better than that for free ranging hens or those in floor pens.