CaCl2 Concentration Research Articles

Mode of Action of Calcium in Reducing Macrocracking of Sweet Cherry Fruit

Rain cracking (hereinafter referred to as macrocracking) severely impacts the production of sweet cherry (Prunus avium). Calcium (Ca) sprays can reduce macrocracking, but the reported responses to Ca sprays are variable and inconsistent. The objective of this study was to establish the physiological mechanism through which Ca reduces macrocracking in sweet cherry fruit. Six spray applications of 50 mM CaCl2 had no effect on macrocracking (assessed using a standardized immersion assay) despite a 28% increase in the Ca-to-dry mass ratio. Similarly, during another experiment, there was no effect of up to nine Ca sprays on macrocracking, although the Ca-to-dry mass ratio increased as the number of applications increased. In contrast, CaCl2 spray applications during simulated rain (in a fog chamber) significantly reduced the proportion of macrocracked fruit. Additionally, immersion of fruit in CaCl2 decreased macrocracking in a concentration-dependent manner. Monitoring macrocrack extension using image analysis revealed that the rate of macrocrack extension decreased markedly as the CaCl2 concentration increased. This effect was significant at concentrations as low as 1 mM CaCl2. Decreased anthocyanin leakage, decreased epidermal cell wall swelling, and increased fruit skin stiffness and fracture force contributed to the decrease in macrocracking. There was no effect of CaCl2 on the cuticle deposition rate. Our results demonstrated that Ca decreased macrocracking when applied to a wet fruit surface either by spraying on wet fruit or by incubation in solutions containing CaCl2. Under these circumstances, Ca had direct access to the cell wall of an extending macrocrack. The mode of action of Ca in reducing macrocracking is primarily decreasing the rate of crack extension at the tip of a macrocrack.

Calcium Chloride Treatment Enhances Antigen Production in Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccines for Serotypes SAT1 and SAT3.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection causing acute and severe vesicular lesions in cattle and pigs, which has prompted global vaccination policies. This study presents a technique for enhancing antigen yield in SAT1 BOT and SAT3 ZIM by treatment with calcium chloride (CaCl2). We tested changes in cell viability in BHK-21 suspension cells treated with varying concentrations of CaCl2. The optimal CaCl2 concentration was determined based on antigen yield. The timing of CaCl2 supplementation relative to FMD virus inoculation was tested. Finally, the optimal medium for antigen production was identified. We observed a concentration-dependent decrease in BHK-21 cell viability at >7.5 mM CaCl2. A CaCl2 concentration of 3 mM yielded the most antigens. CaCl2 supplementation relative to FMD virus infection was optimal 2 h before or with viral inoculation. CD-BHK 21 medium supplemented with CaCl2 was the most productive medium. Specifically, SAT1 BOT and SAT3 ZIM showed improved antigen production in CD-BHK 21 medium with 3 mM CaCl2, while Provero-1 and Cellvento BHK-200 media showed no significant enhancement. Overall, CaCl2 supplementation enhanced FMD antigen productivity. This study provides a useful framework for enhancing antigen production efficiently in the FMD vaccine industry.

Effect of CaCl2 on the micromorphology of a self-thickening agent (TZXJ) for acidizing diversion

The effect of CaCl2 on the micromorphology of a self-thickening agent (TZXJ) was investigated. This study involved analyzing the compositional changes in acid solutions during acid–rock reactions. It combined dynamic light scattering and viscosity testing to confirm that the presence of CaCl2 enhances the aggregation strength of the TZXJ network structure in acid solutions. This enhancement is macroscopically evident as an increase in viscosity. Incorporating 10 % CaCl2 as a promoter into a fresh acid solution, the hydrodynamic radius (Rh) distribution of TZXJ in varying reaction stages was analyzed using dynamic light scattering experiments. The results indicated that the promoter CaCl2 further strengthens the network association of the TZXJ acid solution, thereby improving its thickening capability. Investigating the viscosity of TZXJ aqueous solutions with varying concentrations of CaCl2 revealed that TZXJ exhibits notable salt-thickening effects and can withstand saturated CaCl2 solutions. The microstructural aggregation state and morphology of TZXJ in aqueous solutions were characterized at different CaCl2 concentrations. Dynamic light scattering results demonstrated an increase in the Rh of TZXJ solutions with CaCl2 concentrations. In particular, the mean Rh of a 0.8 % TZXJ solution increased from 150.8 nm to 3078.93 nm. Ultraviolet spectral analysis confirmed that the absorption intensity of the TZXJ solutions increased with CaCl2 concentration, indicating a strengthened network aggregate structure in the TZXJ solutions. Microscopic observations using environmental scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy revealed that under the influence of calcium chloride, the microstructure of TZXJ transitions from a non-associated, linear carbon chain skeleton to a dense, aggregated network structure. The findings of this study offer theoretical insights for researching polymers resistant to extreme concentrations of CaCl2.

The aggregation characteristics of Aspergillus spores under various conditions and the impact on LPUV inactivation: Comparisons with chlorine-based disinfection

Aggregation is the primary step prior to fungal biofilm development. Understanding the attributes of aggregation is of great significance to better control the emergence of waterborne fungi. In this study, the aggregation of Aspergills spores (A. flavus and A. fumigatus) under various salt, culture medium, and humic acid (HA) conditions was investigated for the first time, and the inactivation via low-pressure ultraviolet (LPUV) upon aggregated Aspergillus spores was also presented. The aggregation efficiency and size of aggregates increased over time and at low salt (NaCl and CaCl2) concentration (10 mM) while decreasing with the continuous increase of salt concentration (100 and 200 mM). Increasing the concentration of culture medium and HA promoted the aggregation of fungal spores. Spores became hydrated, swelled, and secreted more viscous substances during the growth period, which accelerated the aggregation process. Results also suggested that fungal spores aggregated more easily in actual water, posing a high risk of biohazard in real-life scenarios. Inactivation efficiency by LPUV decreased with higher aggregation degrees due to the protection from the damaged spores on the outer layer and the shielding of pigments in the cell wall. Compared to chlorine-based disinfection, the aggregation resulted in the extension of shoulder length yet neglectable change of inactivation rate constant under LPUV treatment. Further investigation of cell membrane integrity and intracellular reactive oxygen species was conducted to elucidate the difference in mechanisms between various techniques. This study provides insight into the understanding and controlling of the aggregation of fungal spores.

Synthesis and morphological control of Ca5(PO4)3Cl and Ca2PO4Cl via the phase transformation of amorphous calcium phosphate in molten chlorides

In the present work, the phase conversion of amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) in different molten chlorides (LiCl, NaCl, KCl, CaCl2) was investigated in detail. The main synthesis parameters influencing the phase purity and morphological features of the products include the chemical composition of molten salts, the heat treatment temperature and the ACP-to-flux ratio. The selective synthesis of single-phase Ca5(PO4)3Cl or Ca2PO4Cl depends on the content of CaCl2 in the reaction medium. The morphology control of Ca5(PO4)3Cl powders was achieved by varying the KCl/CaCl2 ratio in the flux, resulting in the formation of the particles of different size and shape. The KCl-rich fluxes led to the formation of relatively small nearly spherical particles, whereas the CaCl2-rich fluxes promoted an anisotropic growth of the Ca5(PO4)3Cl crystals resulting in the formation of monodispersed hexagonally-shaped microrods. Whereas the anisotropic growth was observed at relatively low temperature (750 °C) the increase of the reaction temperature up to 1200 °C significantly reduced this effect leading to the formation of the particles with obviously low aspect ratio. The phase crystallinity and purity were analyzed using powder X-ray diffraction, FTIR spectroscopy as well as 31P, 35Cl and 1H solid-state NMR. The morphological features and chemical composition of the synthesized products were studied by SEM/EDX analysis.

Characteristics and Mechanism of Cd Release and Transport in Soil Contaminated with PE-Cd

Microplastics （MPs） are a type of emerging contaminants that pose a potential threat to global terrestrial ecosystems. The accumulation of MPs in soil inevitably affects soil physical and chemical properties， both directly and indirectly. Additionally， owing to their small size and surface features， MPs have excellent sorption capacity for both organic and inorganic materials， thus affecting their fate in the environment. However， the influence of MPs on heavy metal sorption and transport in soil is still not fully understood. In this study， polyethylene （PE） and Cd were selected as research objects， and on the basis of clarifying the adsorption mechanism of Cd on PE MPs， the effects of PE concentration and particle size on Cd release and transport behavior in soil under different ionic strengths and types （Ca2+ and Na+） were studied using column leaching experiments. The results of the batch experiments showed that the adsorption capacity of PE MPs for Cd2+ decreased with the increase in particle size. Scanning electron microscopy （SEM）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FTIR）， and Zeta potential were used to analyze the properties of PE MPs and adsorption behavior of Cd2+ onto MPs. The adsorption was mainly a physical process and was controlled by intra-particle diffusion. The adsorption kinetics could be described well by the quasi-second-order kinetics and Webber-Morris model. The adsorption isotherm conformed to the Langmuir model， indicating monolayer adsorption. The results of leaching experiments showed that the effect of PE MPs on Cd release and transport in soil was related to the CaCl2 concentration. At high ionic strength （0.05 mol·L-1 and 0.1 mol·L-1）， PE promoted the transport of Cd. The effluent concentration of Cd2+ increased from 6.48 mg·L-1 and 16.79 mg·L-1 to 7.12 mg·L-1 and 23.45 mg·L-1， whereas at low ionic strength （0.01 mol·L-1）， Cd transport was inhibited by PE MPs， and the effluent concentration of Cd2+ decreased from 0.66 mg·L-1 to 0.57 mg·L-1. The larger the amount of PE added， the more significant the promoting or inhibiting effect. Additionally， the release and transport of Cd in soil were also affected by the MPs particle size and concentration. When the addition amount was small （1%， 4%）， the large-sized MPs were more conducive to the transport of Cd in soil. When the addition amount was large （7%， 20%）， MPs with small particle sizes promoted Cd2+ transport more significantly. When the leaching solution used was NaCl， soil permeability decreased significantly. PE MPs had no significant effect on Cd release and transport but changed the stability of soil aggregates. In conclusion， PE MPs could change the release and transport behavior of Cd in soil， and the impact results were not only related to the particle size and content of MPs but were also influenced by the chemical properties of the soil solution.

RNA editing events and expression profiles of mitochondrial protein-coding genes in the endemic and endangered medicinal plant, Corydalis saxicola.

Corydalis saxicola, an endangered medicinal plant endemic to karst habitats, is widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine to treat hepatitis, abdominal pain, bleeding hemorrhoids and other conditions. However, to date, the mitochondrial (mt) genome of C. saxicola has not been reported, which limits our understanding of the genetic and biological mechanisms of C. saxicola. Here, the mt genome of C. saxicola was assembled by combining the Nanopore and Illumina reads. The mt genome of C. saxicola is represented by a circular chromosome which is 587,939 bp in length, with an overall GC content of 46.50%. 40 unique protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes and three rRNA genes were identified. Codon usage of the PCGs was investigated and 167 simple sequence repeats were identified. Twelve homologous fragments were identified between the mt and ct genomes of C. saxicola, accounting for 1.04% of the entire mt genome. Phylogenetic examination of the mt genomes of C. saxicola and 30 other taxa provided an understanding of their evolutionary relationships. We also predicted 779 RNA editing sites in 40 C. saxicola mt PCGs and successfully validated 506 (65%) of these using PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing. In addition, we transcriptionally profiled 24 core mt PCGs in C. saxicola roots treated with different concentrations of CaCl2, as well as in other organs. These investigations will be useful for effective utilization and molecular breeding, and will also provide a reference for further studies of the genus Corydalis.

Effect of Na, Mg, Ca chloride salts on mineral element, proline and total protein contents in rice (Oryza sativa L.) grown in vitro

In this study, the effects of different types and concentrations of salts on local Siverek rice plant (Oryza sativa L.) grown in vitro were investigated in terms of mineral elements (K, Ca, P, Mg, Na, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Mo, Co), proline, and total protein content. Sterilized seeds were planted in hormone-free and salt-free MS medium. After one week, the seedlings were subjected to different concentrations of NaCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2 salts (0, 30 mM, 90 mM) in order to evaluate the effect of salinity on plant growth and development. In response to salt stress, a decrease in nutrient elements was observed for all three types of salt compared to the control group, which can be attributed to disruptions in ion balance. Changes in element levels generally showed varying levels of increase or decrease depending on both the type and concentration of the salt and these changes were statistically significant. The increase in proline level was found to be directly proportional to the changes in the amounts of Ca, Mg, K, and Na elements. Both total protein and proline content showed the lowest values for all salt concentrations with CaCl2, while the highest values were obtained with NaCl. In conclusion, the changes in the level of mineral elements, total protein, and proline content levels, which decrease or increase in different ratios, depending on the type and concentration rising of the salt, are associated with the varying tolerance of the plant to different types of salts.

Enhancing the regeneration of TIS-derived somatic embryos of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) with CaCl2 and GA3

Micropropagation of oil palm through somatic embryogenesis (SE) technique provides clonal and uniform seedlings as high-quality planting materials for plantation. However, a problem associated with oil palm SE is the low regeneration rate of the somatic embryos. It was revealed that nutrient balance played a vital role in the success of SE regeneration. Therefore, a study was conducted to determine the balance between a macronutrient, calcium, and the germination-inducing hormone, Gibberellin (GA3) in enhancing the regeneration of the oil palm somatic embryos derived from the Temporary Immersion System (TIS). Treatments consist of various concentrations of CaCl2 (440, 880, or 1320 mg L-1) and enrichment of GA3 (2 or 4 mg L-1) applied into SE regeneration media, followed by the observation of regeneration rate and shoot tip necrosis after five weeks of culture. The study revealed that CaCl2 in the concentration of 880 mg L-1 was the best in stimulating oil palm TIS-derived SE regeneration. A higher concentration of GA3 (4 mg L-1) was needed in the first transition of SE from TIS into SE regeneration media in solid culture, while further SE-derived shoots development needed a lower concentration of GA3.

Response Surface Methodology: An Optimization of Process Variables for the Nanoencapsulation of Anthocyanins from Black Rice Bran

Nanoencapsulation technology has been used in food and pharmaceutical applications to increase bioactive chemical functioning and stability against external influences. To develop a cost-effective encapsulating procedure, additional optimization is required. This study employed response surface methodology (RSM) to optimize the encapsulation of anthocyanin-rich extract from black rice bran. The extract was encapsulated through pre-gelation and polyelectrolyte complex formation processes. Box-Behnken design was employed to determine the optimum conditions for the encapsulation process with the following process variables: chitosan concentration, pH, and CaCl2 concentration. Chemical characteristics, surface morphology, and particle size were used to describe the resultant capsules, which were then subjected to phytochemical analysis. The optimal encapsulation conditions for anthocyanin were 6.30 mg/mL chitosan, pH 5.5, and 36 mM CaCl2, with a 51.20 % encapsulation efficiency. The developed anthocyanin-loaded nanocapsule has a high TPC (3.87 mg GAE/g) and potent antioxidant activity (5.69 mg TE/g). SEM images revealed a smooth surface area and spherical particles that clumped together, with an average particle size of 94.70 nm. FTIR analysis corroborates the well-incorporation of anthocyanin into the nanocapsules. The encapsulation process of anthocyanin-rich extract from black rice bran was successfully optimized via RSM.

Formation of Three-Dimensional Polysuccinimide Electrospun Fiber Meshes Induced by the Combination of CaCl2 and Humidity.

Even though electrospinning is getting more and more attention, the preparation of 3D nanofibrous meshes is still a big challenge that limits the application of electrospun materials, especially in tissue engineering. To overcome this problem, several solutions are introduced but most of them focus on the postprocessing of the electrospun meshes. This paper presents a straightforward novel method that utilizes the joint effect of the addition of CaCl2 and the relative environmental humidity (RH), which can induce the random 3D formation of polysuccinimide (PSI) electrospun fibers with different such as wrinkled or ribbon-like structures. Although the effect of humidity and inorganic salt additives on the micro and macrostructure of electrospun fibers is known, the connection between the two in this manner has never been presented. To investigate the effect, fibers with different PSI and CaCl2 concentrations at different humidity RH levels are prepared, and their microstructure is visualized with high-resolution scanning electron microscopy (SEM). To reveal the nature of the interaction between the polymer and the CaCl2, Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetry (TGA) measurements are carried out and 3D nanofibrous structures are obtained.

Application of biomass-based wood shaving packing in a liquid desiccant dehumidification system – a source of sustainable energy

ABSTRACT The present work focuses on the construction of a counter flow dehumidification test rig where calcium chloride liquid is used as the desiccant and is made to spray on the novel organic packing made of wood shaving with different densities and porosities. The mass flow rate of the air is varied and the performance parameters such as moisture removal rate (MRR), dehumidification effectiveness, coefficient of performance (COP), sensible heat factor (SHR) and mass transfer coefficient have been investigated. Results demonstrated an increase in the relative humidity, mass transfer coefficient and drop in the COP, MRR and dehumidification efficiency with the increase in the flow airflow rate. On increasing the CaCl2 concentration, dehumidification performance parameters such as MRR, COP and mass transfer coefficient are found to be increased. Out of the three different densities tested, 500 kg/m3 shows best performance with MRR, ΔRH and dehumidification effectiveness being 9.7%, 18.7% and 4.9% lower than the Celdek pad when measured at 5 m/s of air velocity for 30% desiccant concentration. Optimisation of the input parameters has been done and the results revealed that air velocity should be maintained within the range of 4–5 m/s to minimise energy consumption and optimum performance.

Effect of different valence metal cations on the gel characteristics and microstructure of Inca peanut albumin gels

In this paper, the effects of different concentration (0.05–0.5 M) of metal ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Al3+) on the gel properties and microstructure of Inca peanut albumin (IPA) were investigated. Results showed that the formation of IPA gel network was mainly in the cooling stage. The hardness, water holding capacity (WHC) and energy storage modulus of the gels increase when the NaCl and KCl concentration are lower than 0.1 M. With the increase of CaCl2 concentration, the hardness and energy storage modulus of the gels first increased and then decreased, but the WHC did not change significantly. Moreover, 0.1 M AlCl3 increased the WHC, surface hydrophobicity and Zeta potential of the gels, but the average particle size decreased. The above results indicate that different metal ions have different effects on the properties of IPA gels. Metal ions induced the interconversion of the IPA secondary structure, in which the increase in the content of β-sheet structure might be one of the reasons for the enhanced gel properties. NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 induced the gels to form a tighter and more homogeneous fine-chain structure, whereas AlCl3 induced the IPA gel network to form a "sheet-like" structure. In conclusion, the gels' microstructure and properties were improved by the low concentration of NaCl and KCl (<0.1 M), and the gels' distinctive lamellar structure created by 0.1 M Al3+ was better suited to improving their WHC. These results will provide a valuable basis for the application of IPA gels in food colloids.

Mitigation of aeolian erosion of loess soil by Bio-Stimulated microbial induced calcite precipitation

Microbial-induced calcite precipitation (MICP) is a soil amelioration technique that addresses various environmental and engineering concerns. Here, we present a study focusing on aeolian erosion control of loess soil from the Negev Desert (Israel). Changes in the treated soil's chemical, physical, and microbial community (abundance and diversity) were characterized following bio-stimulation of native, urea-hydrolyzing soil bacteria to achieve MICP. Bio-stimulation of the loess soil was induced in liquid media (batch experiments) and by spraying soil trays with stimulation media (urea and yeast extract). These experiments showed that the Negev loess could be readily stimulated to induce bacterial urea hydrolysis. Three to four daily sprayings were sufficient to achieve effective bio-stimulation, evidenced by a high hydrolysis rate and an alkaline pH. Erodibility experiments on a decimeter scale (50 cm x 50 cm trays) were performed on loess sprayed with treatment media with varying concentrations of urea and CaCl2, with a constant 1:1 M ratio. The effectiveness of the treatments was studied in a wind tunnel and by image analysis of desiccation cracks. Upscaling of the experiments to the large trays revealed a more complicated reality with urease activity, community composition, and calcium carbonate precipitation depending on the concentration of the treatment medium. Specifically, we show that a twofold reduction in the area and length of the desiccation cracks can be achieved by spraying the soil with a 0.5 M solution, resulting in effective MICP or a high concentration treatment (>1M solution) without achieving MICP. Our results show that erosion mitigation in loess soil depends on an interplay between biotic and abiotic processes based on the treatment media concentration and provides a necessary step for upscaling the bio-stimulated MICP strategy for future field implementations.

Effects of calcium chloride on the gelling and digestive characteristics of myofibrillar protein in Litopenaeus vannamei

In this study, the effects of CaCl2 (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mM) on the gelling and digestive properties of the myofibrillar protein (MP) in Litopenaeus vannamei were investigated. The results showed that increasing CaCl2 concentration led to changes in the tertiary structure of MP. Specifically, compared with the control group, a 64.31 % increase in surface hydrophobicity and a 45.90 % decrease in the sulfhydryl group were observed after 100 mM CaCl2 treatment. Correspondingly, the water holding capacity and strength of the MP gel increased by 24.46 % and 55.99 %, respectively. These changes were positively correlated with the rheological properties, microstructure pore size, and content of non-flowable water. The mechanical properties of MP gel were improved, and the microstructure became more compact with the increase in CaCl2 concentration. Furthermore, the particle size of the digested MP gels decreased in the presence of CaCl2, which improved the digestion characteristics of MP gels.

Formation of pH-responsive hydrogel beads and their gel properties: Soybean protein nanofibers and sodium alginate

Hydrogel beads prepared from protein nanofibers are popular because of their safety, sleek appearance, and protection of biologically active substances. However, extreme external environmental variations, such as pH and temperature, can limit their practical application. To meet the application requirements of hydrogel beads in different environments, non-covalent mixtures of CaCl2 cross-linked soybean protein nanofibers (SNF) and sodium alginate (SA) were used to prepare hydrogel beads. In the present study, the hardness (782.48 g) and elasticity of hydrogel beads formed at SNF/SA = 7:3 and CaCl2 concentration of 0.1 mol/L were the maximum. Furthermore, the water content and pH swelling also reached a peak (98.68 %, 43.85 g/g) due to the best morphology and regular internal network structure. Meanwhile, the pH-responsive hydrogel beads with added anthocyanins were able to respond to the ambient pH under different temperatures and pH conditions and maintained color stability during 96 h of storage (ΔE < 5). In this experiment, a pH-responsive hydrogel bead based on soybean protein nanofiber (SNF) and sodium alginate (SA) was prepared by simple ionic crosslinking. It provides a theoretical and experimental basis for the future application of plant protein nanofibers as pH-responsive hydrogel materials.

The Effect of pH on the Viscoelastic Response of Alginate-Montmorillonite Nanocomposite Hydrogels.

Ionically cross-linked alginate hydrogels are used in a wide range of applications, such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and food packaging. A shortcoming of these gels is that they lose their strength and degrade at low pH values. To develop gels able to preserve their integrity in a wide range of pH values, Ca-alginate-montmorillonite nanocomposite gels are prepared, and their chemical structure, morphology, and mechanical response are analyzed. As the uniformity of nanocomposite gels is strongly affected by concentrations of MMT and CaCl2, it is revealed that homogeneous gels can be prepared with 4 wt.% MMT and 0.5 M CaCl2 at the highest. The viscoelastic behavior of nanocomposite gels in aqueous solutions with pH = 7 and pH = 2 is investigated by means of small-amplitude compressive oscillatory tests. It is shown that Ca-alginate-MMT nanocomposite gels preserve their integrity while being swollen at pH = 2. The experimental data are fitted by a model with only two material parameters, which shows that the elastic moduli increase linearly with a concentration of MMT at all pH values under investigation due to formation of physical bonds between alginate chains and MMT platelets. The presence of these bonds is confirmed by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. The morphology of nanocomposite gels is studied by means of wide-angle X-ray diffraction, which reveals that intercalation of polymer chains between clay platelets increases the interlayer gallery spacing.

Effect of calcium chloride concentration on seed germination and young seedling parameters in rice (Oryza Sativa L.)

The study was conducted with five rice varieties (Osmanchik 97, Gala, Luna, CL 34, Cameo) in order to determine and compare the effect of increased concentrations of CaCl2 on seed germination during the early stages of plant development. Variations include: control (deionized distilled water), 50 mM, 100 mM, 150 mM, 200 mM, 250 mM, and 300 mM CaCl2 concentrations. Germinating energy, germination rate, germination rate coefficient, germination index degree, germination index, mean germination time, sprout and root length, sprouts and roots fresh and dry weight, seed vitality index and salinity tolerance were determined. The data were analyzed with SPSS program. The results show that the application of increasing concentrations of CaCl2 salinity in the order of 50-200 mM leads to a prolongation of the mean germination time of the seeds and has an inhibitory effect on the growth of sprouts and roots, this effect being more pronounced on the roots . The cultivars Osmanchik 97 and Gala are relatively more tolerant to salinization with low and medium concentrations of CaCl2 in terms of seed germination. At salinity levels from 250 mM to 300 mM CaCl2 solution, all tested cultivars were sensitive.

Effect of Salt Stress on Morphological Characteristics and Secondary Metabolites of Some Forage Pea Cultivars

Forage pea (Pisum sativum L.) is an annual legume forage crop grown in various regions of Türkiye. It is high in protein, carbohydrate, and digestible matter and contains minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, and vitamins A and D. Salinity stress is an important problem in the cultivation of forage peas. Salinity reduces the osmotic potential of soil solutes, making it difficult for the roots to absorb the water. This study aimed to determine some parameters of two registered forage pea cultivars at different concentrations of two salt types. The effects of these salts on the morphological characteristics and biochemical components of two different registered cultivars of pea, cv. Ateş and cv. Töre were investigated in the present study. The trials were conducted in pots and Na2SO4 and CaCl2 were applied at concentrations of 0, 50, 100 and 150 mM. As a result of the trials, the morphological characteristics like fresh and dry weights and lengths of roots and shoots were investigated along with the biochemical properties like total antioxidant activity and total phenolic content. The study was performed in 2 replicates to determine the effect of different salt types and concentrations. The critical salt concentration values for the change in shoot and root fresh weight among morphological traits were determined as 100 and 150 mM for secondary metabolites. While the cv. Töre forage pea showed the highest salt resistance in shoot and root fresh weights in the presence of Na2SO4 the cv. Ateş forage pea showed the lowest salt resistance in the presence of CaCl2. In terms of shoot and root dry weights, the cv. Töre forage pea showed the least resistance at 50 mM Na2SO4 concentration. As for plant length, the cv. Ateş forage pea cultivar showed the least resistance in shoot length at 150 mM CaCl2 concentration, while it showed the highest resistance in root length at this value. The highest total antioxidant activity for the cv. Ateş forage pea and the highest total phenolic content for the cv. Töre forage pea were determined at 150 mM CaCl2 concentration. The lowest total phenolic content value was estimated in the cv. Töre forage pea cultivar at 150 mM Na2SO4 salt concentration.

Synthesis and Characterization of Ethanol Extract Nanoherb of Tapak Liman Leaves (Elephantopus scaber Linn.) by Ionic Gelation Method

Tapak Liman (Elephantopus scaber) is a plant that has been used by Indonesian people as a traditional medicine to treat diarrhea, fever, malaria, and coughs. Tapak Liman leaves contain compounds of flavonoids, phenols, and saponins. However, these phytochemical compounds exhibit low bioavailability properties. Therefore, a technology that can improve their bioavailability is needed. One approach is through the synthesis of Tapak Liman nanoparticles via the ionic gelation method using alginate and CaCl2. This study aims to determine the content of Tapak Liman leaves, synthesize nanoherb from its ethanol extract using alginate and CaCl2, and determine the nanoherb’s particle size and zeta potential. Nanoherbs were synthesized through the ionic gelation method using alginate and CaCl2 with concentrations of sodium alginate at 0.15% w/v; 0.10% w/v; and 0.05% w/v; while the concentration of CaCl2 was at 0.01% w/v. Particle size characterization was performed on all three formulations to identify the optimal one for further zeta potential characterization. The results showed that Tapak Liman leaves contain saponins, triterpenoids, tannins, and phenolics. The optimal formulation for synthesizing ethanol extract nanoherb of Tapak Liman leaves is sodium alginate 0.05% w/v and CaCl2 0.01% w/v, resulting in a nanoherb with a particle size of 184.7 nm, a volume percentage of 51.1%, a polydispersity index of 0.370, and a zeta potential of 19.2 mV. This indicates the potential of Tapak Liman leaf ethanol extract nanoherbs in drug delivery systems, contingent upon stability enhancement.