Byzantine Wall Research Articles

THE ROLE OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE IN TOURISM AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: CASE STUDY OF TEBESSA, ALGERIA

The research explores the importance of architectural and urban heritage for its positive impacts on cities and societies. It highlights how such heritage embodies cultural identity, connects past and present, and promotes tourism and economic development. Tebessa, in eastern Algeria, serves as a case study due to its rich architectural and urban heritage, influenced by Phoenician, Numidian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic civilizations. Key landmarks in Tebessa include the Temple of Minerve, Caracalla Gate, Byzantine Wall, Roman Theatre, Roman Church, Archaeological Park, and Ancient Mosque. These sites create an open archaeological space within the urban fabric, serving as cultural heritage and vital resources for tourism and economic revitalization. The research initially adopts a theoretical approach to identify and describe various heritage sites. It then employs fieldwork, involving the Directorate of Tourism, the Directorate of Culture, and the Department of Archaeological Sites, to assess the status and significance of these monuments. Findings reveal several issues, such as the lack of strategic and institutional efforts to protect and utilize the heritage for cultural tourism and economic development. There is significant neglect and deterioration due to inadequate restoration programs and weak promotional initiatives. The research recommends adopting a comprehensive, multi-dimensional strategy for preserving the heritage of Tebessa, including comprehensive projects, legal frameworks, digital integration, and a participatory management approach. Collaboration with local and international heritage organizations and educational programs to raise awareness are also essential. These measures aim to preserve the architectural heritage and boost tourism in Tebessa.

Byzantine wall paintings from San Marco d’Alunzio, Sicily: non-invasive diagnostics and microanalytical investigation of pigments and plasters

A diagnostic investigation was carried out on twelfth century Byzantine wall paintings preserved in the Museum of Byzantine and Norman Culture and Figurative Arts of San Marco d’Alunzio (Messina, Italy) on the occasion of recent restoration works. First, the wall paintings were analyzed using portable X-Ray Fluorescence (p-XRF) and Fiber Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS) to obtain a non-invasive preliminary identification of the original palette. Then, five fragments were sampled for a micro-stratigraphy study using Digital Optical Microscope (DOM), Polarizing Optical Microscope (POM), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) combined with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (EDS) to characterize the mortars and the blue and black pigments non unequivocally identified through non-invasive techniques. The palette included mainly earthen pigments like red and yellow ochres, green earth, and more valuable lapis lazuli blue applied on a bone black layer; while the analysis of mortars found on the different apses showed the same manufacturing technique and constitutive materials: lime-based binder with the addition of quartz, and rare calcareous lithic fragments as aggregate. The obtained results shed light on the pictorial technique used for the wall paintings and allowed us to compare the Sicilian pictorial cycle with the coeval Byzantine wall paintings preserved in Sardinia and Southern Italy.

A Group of Byzantine Wall Paintings on Rock Surfaces in İncirliova, Aydın and Yatağan, Muğla

Aydın’ın İncirliova ilçesine bağlı Dereağzı köyünün yukarısında Ballıkaya ve Muğla İline bağlı Yatağan ilçesinin Yava köyü sınırları içinde kaya yüzeyine yapılmış dört resimli yüzey tespit edilmiştir. Aydın, Ballıkaya’da oldukça sarp bir alanda bulunan mağaranın girişinin sağ tarafında, sıvalı yüzeyinin üzeri mavimsi-gri bir fondan oluşan panonun içerisine tek figür olarak cepheden ve ayakta Başmelek Mikhail resmedilmiştir. Melek bir tunik üzerine, önü işlemeli bir zırh giymiştir. İki yana yayılmış açık kanatları yere kadar uzanan melek, bir eliyle omzuna dayanan kılıcı, diğeriyle kını aşağıya doğru tutmaktadır. Yatağan’da tespit edilen resimlerin ilki halk arasında Resimli Kaya olarak anılan anıtsal kaya kütlesinin güneybatısında yer almaktadır. Sıvasız yüzeye yapılmış olan resimler, doğu-batı doğrultusunda uzanan iki şerit üzerinde yer almaktadır. Üst şeritte tanımlanabilen ilk sahne Yahuda’nın ihanetidir. Tasvirin orta bölümünde ayakta, birinin gövdesi cepheden, diğerininki yandan resmedilmiş iki figür yer almaktadır. Soldaki İsa’yı, sağdaki Yahuda’yı temsil eden bu figürlerin birbirine yaslanmış başları cephedendir. Tasvirin devamına İsa’nın Çarmıha Gerilmesi resmedilmiştir. Kompozisyonun orta kısmında, çarmıhta İsa, Meryem ve Yahya yer almaktadır. Alt şeritte içinde büst formunda aziz, piskopos ya da kilise babalarına ait portelerin resmedildiği altı madalyan yer alır. Yatağandaki üçüncü resim, Resimli Kaya Kütlesinin kuzeyinde, taş bloklarının oluşturduğu Rozetli Mağara olarak adlandırdığımız küçük bir mekândadır. Sıva üzerine yapılmış resimlerde figüre yer verilmemiştir. Mekân içinde doğal yolla oluşmuş kubbemsi formun etrafı siyah, ince bir çizgiyle çerçevelenerek içerisi açık yeşil renkli kalın dairesel bir bordürle sınırlandırılmıştır. Dairesel çerçevenin sol dış köşesinin alt bölümünde, uzun yeşil yapraklı bir lale motifi yer almaktadır. Yatağan’daki dördüncü resimli yüzey, Resimli kayanın kuzeybatısında, Nişli Kaya olarak adlandırdığımız kaya kütlesinin batı yüzünde bulunan derin bir nişin içindedir. Nişin içi sıvanarak, tek sahneli bir resimle bezenmiştir. Sahnenin ortasına, Meryem ve kucağında çocuk İsa resmedilmiştir. Rozetli Mağara haricindeki resimlerin, üslupsal ve ikonokrafik özelliklerinden hareketle Orta Bizans dönemi içinde yapıldığı Resimli Kaya’nın 1. grup resimlerinin 2. evresinin de yine bu dönem içerisinde yenilendiği anlaşılmaktadır. Rozetli kayada yer alan resimlerin ise, üslup ve motif seçimleri İkonoklazma dönemine işaret etmektedir.

In Situ Implementation of Imaging Techniques Reveals Key Motifs in the Early Byzantine Wall Painting of Christ’s Baptism at Shivta, Israel

Following the rediscovery of the Early Byzantine wall painting of Christ’s baptism in the northern church of Shivta in southern Israel, the painting was investigated with different imaging techniques in order to clarify the scene and to find additional painted motifs and hidden colors and patterns. Besides high-quality photography from close distance on a scaffolding at 3.5 m height, thus at the level of the painting, Near IR photography (NIR), UV wavelengths microscopy, and Visible Induced Luminescence (VIL) imaging were all conducted in order to collect new information on the painting. The combination of several imaging techniques provided new and surprising details on elements of the painting, especially revealing blue color around the head and shoulders of Christ, most probably reminiscent of the River Jordan where the baptism took place.

Byzantine Wall Paintings and Icons at Meteora

Byzantine Wall Paintings and Icons at Meteora

PLASTER CHARACTERISTICS OF BYZANTINE WALL PAINTINGS IN WESTERN ANATOLIA

In this study, the execution technique and material characteristics of the plaster layers of Byzantine wall paintings from three archaeological sites (Anaia, Olympos and Aigai) from western Anatolia were examined for the purpose of their conservation. Throughout the study, mineralogical and chemical composition of the plaster layers were determined with a scanning electron microscope coupled with an X-ray energy dispersive system (SEM-EDS) and X-ray diffraction analyses (XRD). Reflected light microscopy (RLM) and SEM studies conducted on polished cross-sections of samples revealed the stratigraphy and microstructural properties of the plaster layers of the Anaia Church (4th–12th centuries), Başpınar Church (13th century) in Olympos and a Byzantine settling and the Chapel (13th century) in Aigai. Throughout the research, pure lime and aggregates in the plasters of Aigai, as well as magnesium-rich lime and straw in the plasters of Anaia and Başpınar were determined. The plasters from the Anaia and Başpınar Churches exhibit characteristics similar to the samples from the post-iconoclastic period due to a similar raw-material use. In the samples from Aigai, plastering techniques such as marmorino, intonachino and cocciopesto, indicating earlier periods, were observed. As a result of this study, it was concluded that the number and characteristics of the plaster layers from the paintings had been applied intentionally in accordance with the technique of the painting. Plaster characteristics of the wall paintings in western Anatolia from the Byzantine period were found to be similar to the ones in İstanbul, the Balkans, Crete and Cyprus. The results of this study will guide the conservation efforts of the wall paintings.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to Food and Foodways in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean Edited by Sylvie Yona Waksman (Archéologies 4). Lyon: Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée 2020. Pp. 508. €65. ISBN 978-2-35668-070-9 (paper).

<i>Multidisciplinary Approaches to Food and Foodways in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean</i> Edited by Sylvie Yona Waksman (Archéologies 4). Lyon: Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée 2020. Pp. 508. €65. ISBN 978-2-35668-070-9 (paper).

Small Multispectral UAV Sensor and Its Image Fusion Capability in Cultural Heritage Applications

For many decades the multispectral images of the earth’s surface and its objects were taken from multispectral sensors placed on satellites. In recent years, the technological evolution produced similar sensors (much smaller in size and weight) which can be placed on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), thereby allowing the collection of higher spatial resolution multispectral images. In this paper, Parrot’s small Multispectral (MS) camera Sequoia+ is used, and its images are evaluated at two archaeological sites, on the Byzantine wall (ground application) of Thessaloniki city (Greece) and on a mosaic floor (aerial application) at the archaeological site of Dion (Greece). The camera receives RGB and MS images simultaneously, a fact which does not allow image fusion to be performed, as in the standard utilization procedure of Panchromatic (PAN) and MS image of satellite passive systems. In this direction, that is, utilizing the image fusion processes of satellite PAN and MS images, this paper demonstrates that with proper digital processing the images (RGB and MS) of small MS cameras can lead to a fused image with a high spatial resolution, which retains a large percentage of the spectral information of the original MS image. The high percentage of spectral fidelity of the fused images makes it possible to perform high-precision digital measurements in archaeological sites such as the accurate digital separation of the objects, area measurements and retrieval of information not so visible with common RGB sensors via the MS and RGB data of small MS sensors.

Investigations of byzantine wall paintings in the abbey of Santa Maria di Cerrate (Italy) in view of their restoration.

In this paper, diagnostic analyses on 12th-13th century byzantine wall paintings in the abbey of Santa Maria di Cerrate (Southern Italy) were carried out preparatory to restoration work promoted by FAI (Fondo Ambiente Italiano). Both the pigments and the areas with a bleaching alteration in the frescoes were analysed using the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence, the Raman spectroscopy and the scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer. In particular, ED-XRF analyses were performed in situ on wall paintings, while Raman spectroscopy and SEM-EDX were accomplished on frescoes fragments. The results obtained allowed to determine the chemical composition of the pigments, helping to identify the original parts of the frescoes from the retouched ones. The work also provided important information about the historical-artistic context of the abbey. Archaeometric investigations have indeed revealed the pictorial technique used for the wall paintings of the abbey, as well as the presence of some very valuable pigments, such as lapis lazuli blue.

Graeco opere w królewskim teatrze władzy Władysława Jagiełły. Wprowadzenie do badań

&lt;p&gt;Z inicjatywy króla polskiego Władysława Jagiełły wykonano zespół bizantyńskich malowideł ściennych, które Jan Długosz określa w swoich dziełach terminami: &lt;em&gt;graeco opere&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;pictura graeca&lt;/em&gt; lub &lt;em&gt;sculptura graeca&lt;/em&gt;. Malowidła te powstały w miejscach o szczególnym polityczno-religijnym znaczeniu dla Królestwa Polskiego a bizantyńską dekorację malarską dostosowano w przemyślany sposób do wnętrz gotyckich. Naukowa refleksja poświęcona jagiellońskim polichromiom, prowadzona od przeszło 150 lat, nadal nie daje pełnej jasności co do przyczyn tej oryginalnej syntezy artystycznej. Ugruntowana w polskiej mediewistyce teza o prywat­nych upodobaniach króla Władysława Jagiełły do malarstwa bizantyńsko-ruskiego, wydaje się przy obecnym stanie wiedzy o roli sztuki w średniowieczu, tezą nie przekonującą. W opinii autora prezentowanego tekstu, przedstawiony wyżej problem wymaga postawienia nowych pytań i odświeżenia perspektywy badawczej. Autor, w swoich badaniach, analizuje omawiane malowidła przez pryzmat królewskiej teologii politycznej i znaczenia sztuki w procesie kształtowaniu wizerunku późnośredniowiecznego monarchy. Korzystając z najnowszych badań i ustaleń historyków, postrzega króla Władysława Jagiełłę przede wszystkim jako skutecznego i sprawnego polityka, a nie miłośnika sztuki.&lt;/p&gt;

Influence of the petrophysical and durability properties of carbonate rocks on the deterioration of historic constructions in Tebessa (northeastern Algeria)

A thorough investigation of the weathering phenomena affecting a Byzantine Wall has been carried out. This Wall is a representative example of historic constructions in Tebessa (northeastern Algeria), in which limestone and carbonate tufa were the main materials used. Field investigations showed several weathering forms, including flaking, alveolisation, efflorescence, discolouration, fracturing, material loss and powdering. These weathering forms were mainly produced by salt action (gypsum and halite) and were related to the textural and petrophysical properties of the limestone and carbonate tufa. The quantification of the degree of deterioration using a Schmidt hammer revealed damage ranging from medium to severe. Petrophysical and durability properties were measured for both stone types extracted from ancient quarries. Pore structure, capillarity imbibition, P wave velocities and uniaxial compressive strength were used to characterise the petrophysical properties of the stones, and salt crystallisation tests were used to estimate their durability. These properties are closely linked to the stone microstructure. Carbonate tufas show excellent durability under salt crystallisation and a lower mechanical strength than limestone. Limestone, on the other hand, despite its low porosity and better mechanical strength, shows lower durability values. While micropores contribute to the relatively lower durability values of limestone, in tufa, macropores reduce the salt crystallisation effectiveness and improve the durability. According to our investigation, the Byzantine Wall requires urgent preservation measures. In the built heritage of Tebessa, limestone is expected be more prone to deterioration than carbonate tufa.

Petrographic analyses of the substrate of a wall painting from the south-west church at Sa’adon in the Negev

Petrographic analyses of the substrate of a wall painting from a church at Sa’adon shed light on the under researched subject of the technique of execution of Byzantine wall paintings. The results suggest that the flawed execution of the substrates might be responsible for the low rate of preservation of murals from this period. Differences in the composition of the construction mortar and plaster show that the Byzantine craftspeople modified the properties of the renders accordingly to their function, a practice often attested in the Roman period but rarely demonstrated through archaeometric studies of Byzantine renders.

Christ’s face revealed at Shivta: an Early Byzantine wall painting in the desert of the Holy Land

A previously unknown painting of Christ’s face, recently discovered at the Byzantine site of Shivta in the Negev Desert of southern Israel, represents the first pre-iconoclastic baptism-of-Christ scene to be found in the Holy Land.

Interazioni del sacro. Forme e modelli di culto nella pittura bizantina di Puglia

To trace unusual connections in the Byzantine wall paintings of monuments around Salento in both their local and broader, Mediterranean-basin dimensions, this study considers paintings in construct...

Execution technique and pigment characteristics of Byzantine wall paintings of Anaia Church in Western Anatolia

In this study, material characteristics of wall paintings executed in 11th Century Byzantine Church located in archaeological site of Anaia (Turkey) were investigated to provide historical information of the painting techniques. For this purpose, physical, chemical and mineralogical compositions of the paintings were determined by X-Ray Diffraction, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive spectroscopy and Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis. Analysis results indicated that the paintings were executed using lime-secco technique. In this technique, pigments were mixed with lime and applied on a smooth plaster layer. Pigments used were mainly iron oxides for red, yellow and purple paintings, aluminosilicates such as celadonite for green paintings and lazurite for dark blue paintings.

Spectroscopic analysis of XIV century wall paintings from Patriarchate of Peć Monastery, Serbia

The Church of the Holy Mother of God Hodegetria in Peć is decorated with wall paintings that date from the beginning of the 14th century. In terms of style they correspond to Byzantine wall paintings from the epoch of Paleologos. The painting technique and pigment pallete has been examined on micro fragments in thin cross-sections by means of optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and micro- Raman spectroscopy. Use of the fresco technique and two supporting plaster layers was noted on the majority of samples, while in large blue painted areas, a combination of fresco and secco techniques was used. The SEM-EDS results showed the presence of Ca as the main component of plaster besides the traces of Si and Mg. In some samples egg white as a binder was identified. The paint film is often multilayered. Twelve pigments were identified, mainly natural earth pigments such as red ochre, yellow ochre and green earth. A mixture of pigments was used for attaining desirable optical and aesthetical impressions. As decay product only weddelite was detected in many preparatory and painted samples.

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE ROCK SLOPE STABILITY PROBLEMS OCCURRED AT THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE COASTAL BYZANTINE WALL OF KAVALA CITY, GREECE

The coastal Byzantine wall of Kavala is located at the Panagia peninsula and it is founded on the Simvolou granite. The granite rock mass appears to be fractured by joint sets with very high persistence (&gt;20m) and very wide spacing (60cm – 2m), forming large rock blocks. Further more, the Panagia peninsula is intersected by numerous parallel normal faults, forming extended zones of intensively fractured rock mass. Along the coastline the granite appear to be eroded by the sea waves, forming small gulfs around the faults. The Byzantine wall is founded along the edge of the fractured slopes forming the coast line of the peninsula, arising issues about the safety of the historical construction. The joint sets form numerous rock wedges with unfavourable orientation, many sections of the slopes are undercut by the wave erosion and in the majority of the fault zones the rock mass presents intensive fragmentation. The above described condition of the rock mass was recorded in detail along the entire coast line and all unstable sections were located. A full set of support measures was proposed for all unfavourable sections aiming to the improvement of the geotechnical behaviour of the rock mass, constituting the foundation formation of the Byzantine wall.

Earliest evidence for asbestos composites linked to Byzantine wall paintings production

Evidence suggests that asbestos, a fibrous form of serpentine or amphibole was discovered and used in Cyprus since ancient times. In the first century AD, Pedanius Dioscorides in his treatise De Materia Medica V.138, refers to “λíθoς ἀμíαντoς” [lithos amiantos], a fibrous stone from Cyprus, cleansed by fire that was mainly used to manufacture fabrics. Other ancient Greek and Latin authors make reference to the use of this natural resource mainly for the production of textiles and oil-lamp wicks. Additional known uses of asbestos in antiquity include ceramic production as evidenced by the discovery in Finland of 2000 BC asbestos-tempered ceramic ware. The exploitation and use of this fibrous rock in the manufacture of cements, however, was thought to be a novelty of the late nineteenth century. Here we show that ‘amiantos’ composites were in existence in Byzantine Cyprus, emerging much earlier than the start of the modern asbestos industry. The identification of chrysotile mineral in CaCO3-rich uppermost plaster coatings, just beneath the paint layer, in twelfth century Byzantine wall paintings in the Enkleistra – place of reclusion – of Saint Neophytos, provides direct evidence for the earliest use of asbestiform fibres in wall-painting finish coatings. We demonstrate that Byzantine monks were familiar with the fabrication of asbestos-fibre composites and their superior properties over more common CaCO3/organic fibre plasters, traditionally used in Byzantine wall painting. We support that chrysotile fibres were exploited for their good physical, flexural, and insulating properties.

Identification of pigments on Byzantine wall paintings from Crete (14th century AD) using non-invasive Fiber Optics Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS)

In this paper a combined analytical methodology was employed aiming to explore the potential of the non-invasive Fiber Optics Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS) technique for Byzantine wall painting pigments' characterization, as well as to assess the reliability of analytical information comparing the results with detailed spectral analyses obtained by advanced laboratory techniques such as Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (ESEM-EDX), Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and micro-Raman Spectroscopy. Byzantine wall paintings (14th Century) decorating two Churches located in the settlements of Patsos and Meronas at Amari, Crete, were investigated in a first systematic research effort to study the mural painting pigments and techniques employed on the island during this period. Micro-sampling was allowed for laboratory analyses only from the Patsos Church's murals. The results obtained from the various spectroscopic methods employed confirmed the identification of pigments (red/yellow ochres, cinnabar, green earth, etc) and that the mixed fresco-secco technique was used in these paintings. In order to characterize the Meronas murals, a comparative study was performed between the acquired FORS spectra of both Churches and the laboratory analyses results. The data obtained confirmed the effectiveness of FORS technique for wall painting pigments' identification, offering key advantages such as instrument mobility and rapid data collection which are of utmost significance in the field of archaeological research.The present work provides detailed information on the structure of pigments and the interpretation of the FTIR spectra by assigning characteristic vibrational modes in these spectra and the electronic transitions of the VIS-NIR spectra, which would be of great value as a reference for other FTIR and FORS researchers in this field.

Picturing Christ’s childhood: Some examples of a rare iconographic theme inspired by the infancy gospels

This article examines Byzantine wall paintings dated to the thirteenth and fourteenth century depicting a rare iconographic theme of Jesus?s childhood inspired by the Infancy Gospels. The iconography shows the Virgin Mary leading the child Jesus by the hand. The child is depicted holding different objects, such as a writing tablet, an unfurled scroll, or a wicker basket filled with flowers or fruits. Several of the scenes under examination have been hitherto misidentified or altogether unknown. In addition to this, the article interprets these representations in a broader iconographic context and addresses the possible origin of the theme.