Butylene Adipate Co-terephthalate Research Articles

Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Poly (Butylene Adipate-co-Terephthalate) / Poly (Lactic Acid) Blend and Montmorillonite Functionalized by Ionic Liquids Composites

The composites of poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) / poly (lactic acid) (PBAT/PLA) blend and montmorillonites functionalized using imidazole-derived ionic liquids with different carbon chain sizes (butyl, octyl, and dodecyl) proved to be a promising alternative for improving the thermal and mechanical properties of the polymer blend. Functionalization of montmorillonites by ionic liquids was confirmed by increasing the basal spacing, and spectroscopical and thermal analysis evidence. The composite synthesis was carried out by casting technique generating homogeneous polymeric films. X-ray diffraction analyses suggested that montmorillonite functionalization with the ionic liquid of the butyl carbon chain fostered exfoliation and incorporation of the clay into the polymer. Furthermore, an increase in the thermal stability and mechanical properties of the material was observed. The other composites formed between the PBAT/PLA blend and the montmorillonite functionalized by ionic liquids of higher carbonic chain showed micro composites formation. Thus, their thermal and mechanical properties had no significant improvements.

Some Aspects of Using Polymer Materials in Electrical Engineering

AbstractPolymer materials are an integral part of our life, and in recent decades they have found an increasing number of applications in electrical engineering. They are used not only as insulators, protective materials and flexible substrates, but also as electrically conductive materials for instance in batteries, capacitors, sensing systems and photovoltaics. These materials are light, low-cost, and easy to manufacture. Their properties can be tailored according to the demands of the particular application. The drawback of polymeric materials, especially petroleum-based plastics, is their impact on the environment due to difficult and/or costly recycling. A possible solution to this problem could be replacing conventional plastics with biodegradable polymer materials obtained from nature like proteins and polysaccharides or synthesised from biological products like poly(lactic acid) or from petroleum like poly(butyleneadipate-co terephthalate). This paper provides an overview of the most commonly used conventional polymeric materials and their potential biodegradable substitutes used in electrotechnical applications.

Effect of the inclusion complex formation method on the functional properties of poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) active films

The food waste and single-use packaging problems require efforts to develop active, sustainable packaging to extend the shelf life of perishable products. Therefore, the β-Cyclodextrin-Clove essential oil inclusion complexes (IC) obtained by ultrasound (IC-U) and kneading (IC-K) methods were incorporated into a PBAT matrix. The effect of the IC on the structural, functional, and biodegradability features of the PBAT matrix was assessed. The results show that the IC exhibited high thermal stability and adequate dispersion in the PBAT matrix during the extrusion process. The PBAT-IC films, as prototypes of packaging bags, improved the shelf life of perishable foods (blueberries), reducing their weight loss by 20 % and 8 % after 28 days at room and refrigerated temperatures, preserving the diameter of the blueberries and inhibiting fungal growth, corroborating an improvement in functional properties. Moreover, IC-U and IC-K incorporation did not affect Young's modulus (85 N/mm²), tensile strength (19 N/mm²), elongation at break (553 %), and disintegration degree (90 %) of the films, making them alternative food preservation packaging for the food industry.

3D Printing and Biodegradable Polymers

Abstract 3D printing technology has a wide range of applications in many industries, including automotive, aerospace, biomedical, electronics and packaging, requiring different types of filaments to be used in producing 3D printed objects. The most commonly used materials are metals, ceramics, composites and plastics of which the latter are most available. Since it is necessary to reduce pollution caused by waste from conventional petroleum-based plastics, biodegradable polymers made from renewable resources or produced synthetically have gained in importance recently. Polylactic acid, poly(butylene succinate), thermoplastic starch, poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate) and polycaprolactone are well-known representatives of this group of materials. They possess desirable properties for 3D printing which make them promising materials in many areas of applications.

Response of terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber and mealworm Tenebrio molitor to non-degradable and biodegradable fossil-based mulching film microplastics

Agricultural mulching films are potential sources of microplastics (MPs) in soil. As an alternative to conventional non-degradable mulching films, a variety of different biodegradable mulching films are used. However, it is not yet known whether MPs from biodegradable mulching films pose a lower risk to terrestrial invertebrates compared to MPs from conventional mulching films. In this study, the effects of MPs produced from two conventional polyethylene (PE-1 and PE-2) and two biodegradable (starch-based poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate); PBAT-BD-1, and PBAT-BD-2) fossil-based mulching films on terrestrial crustacean woodlice Porcellio scaber and mealworm Tenebrio molitor were compared. A key finding was that no clear differences in induced responses between biodegradable and conventional MPs were detected. No adverse effects on P. scaber after two weeks and on T. molitor after four weeks of exposure were observed up to 5 % (w/w dry soil) of either MP type. However, some sublethal physiological changes in metabolic rate and immune parameters were found in P. scaber after two weeks of exposure indicating a response of organisms to the presence of MP exposure in soil. In addition, it was demonstrated that both types of MPs might affect the soil water holding capacity and pH. In conclusion, we confirmed that biodegradable MPs can induce responses in organisms hence further studies testing the environmental hazard of biodegradable MPs are justified.

Interactions of traditional and biodegradable microplastics with neonicotinoid pesticides

Neonicotinoid pesticides (NNPs) and microplastics (MPs) are two emerging contaminants in agricultural environment. However, the interaction between MPs (especially biodegradable plastics) and NNPs is currently unclear. Therefore, taking thiacloprid (THI) as an example of NNPs, this study explores the adsorption-desorption process and mechanism of NNPs on MPs (traditional and biodegradable plastics), and analyzed the main factors affecting the adsorption (pH, salinity and dissolved organic matter). In addition, by using diffusive gradients in thin-films device, this study assessed the impact of MPs on the bioavailability of NNPs in soil. The results showed that the maximum adsorption capacity of polyamide 6 (96.49 μg g−1) for THI was greater than that of poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (88.78 μg g−1). Aging increased the adsorption amount of THI (5.53 %–15.8 %) due to the higher specific surface area and reduced contact angle of MPs, but the adsorption mechanism remained unchanged. The desorption amount of THI from MPs in simulated intestinal fluid is 1.30–1.36 times. The MPs in soil alter the distribution of THI in the soil, increasing the bioavailability of THI while inhibiting its degradation. The results highlighted the significance of examining the combined pollution caused by MPs and NNPs.

Building and Evaluating a Green and Multifunctional Composite Based on Poly(butylene adipate-co terephthalate) with Zirconium Phosphate and Clove Essential Oil

Although poly(butylene-adipate-terephthalate) (PBAT) is derived from fossil sources, it is classified as a biodegradable polymer because of its predominantly aliphatic ester structure. Synthetic Zirconium phosphate (ZrP) has been widely studied for its notable properties in various fields of human activity. Clove oil (CO) is an eco-friendly material with notable antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. In this context, the present study aimed to develop a green and multifunctional composite based on PBAT incorporated with ZrP, modified ZrP, and CO. The wide-angle X-ray diffraction revealed that the presence of CO promoted the delamination of the phosphates. The thermogravimetric analysis indicated that ZrP and modified ZrP slightly improved the thermal stability of PBAT. The calorimetric evaluations revealed that both ZrP and modified ZrP acted as heterogeneous nucleating agents, increasing the degree of crystallization of PBAT by approximately 70–85%. The incorporation of phosphates and clove oil enhanced the hydrophobicity of the composite films by 20–50%. The thermomechanical analysis indicated a reduction in the glass transition temperature of PBAT and an increase in its linear coefficient of thermal expansion. The type of phosphate and the amount of clove oil influenced the polymer’s molecular relaxation behavior. Antimicrobial testing confirmed that the composite effectively inhibited the growth of Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus) ands the yeast Candida albicans.

Analytical strategy to assess the microbial degradation of poly(butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate)/poly(lactic acid) films

Plastic is widely used in agricultural applications, but its waste has an adverse environmental impact and a long-term detrimental effect. The development of biodegradable plastics for agricultural use is increasing to mitigate plastic waste. The most commonly used biodegradable plastic is poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate)/poly(lactic acid) (PBAT/PLA) polymer.In this study, an analytical procedure based on dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in combination with chemometrics has been optimized to assess the degradation level of PBAT/PLA films by monitoring their characteristic degradation products. Carboxylic acids (benzoic, phthalic, adipic, heptanoic, and octadecanoic acids) and 1,4-butanediol have been found to be potential markers of PBAT/PLA degradation.The DLLME-GC-MS analytical approach has been applied for the first time to assess the degradation efficiency of several microorganisms used as degradation accelerators of PBAT/PLA based on the assigned potential markers. This analytical strategy has shown higher sensitivity and precision than standard techniques, such as elemental analysis, allowing us to detect low degradation levels.

Starch-based biodegradable composites: Effects of in-situ re-extrusion on structure and performance

In this study, starch-based biodegradable composites (SDC) were prepared by extruding using thermoplastic starch (TPS, 65%wt), polylactic acid (PLA, 30%wt) and poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT, 5%wt). Structure and properties of the SDC were compared by performing 1-, 2-, 3-times extrusion. The results show that in-situ re-extrusion refines the TPS in composites and reduces the size of the phase. As the number of extrusions increases, the ester bond of composites at 868 cm−1 disappears, the crystallinity increases, and the thermal stability decreases. Among the three types of composites, the mechanical properties and hydrophobic properties of the material obtained by the 2-times are the most outstanding. Compared with SDC, the elongation at break and Young's modulus of SDC-2 are significantly increased, with an increase of 8.01 % and 1.28 % in the machine direction and an increase of 11.02 % and 1.79 % in the transverse direction respectively. Additionally, water contact angle range of SDC-2 from 98.7° to 101.7°. Therefore, SDC prepared by 2-times in-situ re-extrusion has the best film properties and is an ideal packaging material. This study presents a novel method for fabricating starch-degradable composite films by in-situ re-extrusion, providing new insights into the development of starch packaging materials.

Cellulose nanocrystals engineered TPS/PBAT granulation through extrusion process and application for compostable carry bags

An economical and scalable process route has been developed for preparation of bio nanofillers, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) using acid hydrolysis and ceramic membrane-based continuous neutralization process alternative to conventional dialysis process. Optimized process achieved 42 % yield with crystallinity index of 91.3 % and average size 20–50 nm as confirmed by TEM analysis. Solid-state NMR result shows that the CNCs lateral dimension is comparable to elementary cellulose crystallites. Prior optimized composition of CNCs (Kesari et al., 2022) in TPS was used to prepare bio-nanocomposite with aim to reduced Poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) content in packaging films. A strong evolution in the mechanical and rheological properties of the CNCs reinforced blends was observed with increase in PBAT content with optimum blending ratio of 70/30. The composite attained tensile strength and young’s modulus of 11.01 ± 0.15 and 1200.94 ± 16 MPa, respectively with water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of 63.96 ± 1.02 g/m2/day than neat PBAT (124.56 ± 6.89) which has higher vapor permeation. The thermal analysis confirms with bio nanofillers addition reduced the processing temperature of the polymeric blend. Thus, this work provides an economical and sustainable pathway for high content of biobased carbon (>70 %) for biodegradable packing industry.

Detection and specific chemical identification of submillimeter plastic fragments in complex matrices such as compost

Research on the plastic contamination of organic fertilizer (compost) has largely concentrated on particles and fragments > 1 mm. Small, submillimeter microplastic particles may be more hazardous to the environment. However, research on their presence in composts has been impeded by the difficulty to univocally identify small plastic particles in such complex matrices. Here a method is proposed for the analysis of particles between 0.01 and 1.0 mm according to number, size, and polymer type in compost. As a first demonstration of its potential, the method is used to determine large and small microplastic in composts from eight municipal compost producing plants: three simple biowaste composters, four plants processing greenery and cuttings and one two-stage biowaste digester-composter. While polyethylene, PE, tends to dominate among fragments > 1 mm, the microplastic fraction contained more polypropylene, PP. Whereas the contamination with PE/PP microplastic was similar over the investigated composts, only composts prepared from biowaste contained microplastic with a signature of biodegradable plastic, namely poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate), PBAT. Moreover, in these composts PBAT microplastic tended to form the largest fraction. When the bulk of residual PBAT in the composts was analyzed by chloroform extraction, an inverse correlation between the number of particles > 0.01 mm and the total extracted amount was seen, arguing for breakdown into smaller particles, but not necessarily a mass reduction. PBAT oligomers and monomers as possible substrates for subsequent biodegradation were not found. Remaining microplastic will enter the environment with the composts, where its subsequent degradability depends on the local conditions and is to date largely uninvestigated.

Repeated mechanical recycling of biodegradable polymers: PLA exhibits less deterioration than PBAT/PLA blend

Biodegradable polymers have been extensively researched as alternatives to non-biodegradable fossil-based polymers. Although they reduce environmental impact, their production competes with land needed for food crops. Therefore, exploring their reuse and recycling is essential for enhancing their circular economy and sustainability. This study evaluated the recyclability of commercially available biodegradable polymers, poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and its blend with poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT), across three cycles of mechanical recycling. Each cycle simulates plastic production, shelf-life, washing, and reprocessing stages. Samples were analysed after molding, ageing, and washing for each cycle using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), tensile testing, and rheological analysis to track changes in crystallization, chemical structure, viscosity, and mechanical behaviors. Results indicated that both PLA and PBAT/PLA (55/45 wt%) blend showed a rise in crystallinity (Xc) due to the annealing effect of the ageing and washing. No changes in FTIR spectra and Xc were detected after one recycling cycle, indicating stability. After three reprocessing cycles, second heating crystallinity rose from 2 % to 13 % for PLA and from 2 % to 12 % for PBAT/PLA (45 wt% PLA), indicating morphological changes from degradation and molecular weight reduction. Despite higher crystallinity and a more moderate decline in complex viscosity and storage modulus than PLA, PBAT/PLA showed reduced mechanical properties, with a 90 % drop in elongation at break and nearly 50 % in stress at break, highlighting the need for interventions to control PBAT degradation. PLA maintained strong mechanical properties, demonstrating its potential as a compostable recyclable material.

The impact of esterified nanofibrillated cellulose content on the properties of thermoplastic starch/PBAT biocomposite films through ball-milling

To enhance the mechanical properties and interfacial compatibility of thermoplastic starch (TPS) highly filled poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) composite films, esterified NFC was innovatively fabricated and introduced into the composite system. The influences of NFC content and ball-milling treatment were thoroughly investigated. Interestingly, the amphiphilic esterified NFC provided a “bridge-like” effect between TPS and PBAT interfaces, which significantly improved the interfacial compatibility and mechanical properties. Notably, the tensile properties of the composite films reached their maximums at a 7 wt% NFC content, displaying a tensile strength of 6.2 MPa and an elastic modulus of 263 MPa. These values corresponded to a 59 % and 180 % increase, respectively, compared to the composition without NFC. More importantly, ball-milling contributed to uniform dispersion and surface activation of NFC, preventing starch retrogradation, and enhancing the tensile strength and elastic modulus by 30.3 % and 56.6 %, respectively. Additionally, the film exhibited excellent UV-blocking, foldable, writable, and transparent performance. These findings provide valuable data supporting the expanded applications of starch-based composite films.

Influence of different gamma radiation doses on the physical, chemical and thermal properties of antimicrobial active packaging of poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) films additivated with orange essential oil

Influence of different gamma radiation doses on the physical, chemical and thermal properties of antimicrobial active packaging of poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) films additivated with orange essential oil

Plasma treatment process for accelerating the disintegration of a biodegradable mulch film in soil and compost

Biodegradable Mulch Films (BMFs) offer a sustainable alternative to traditional non-degradable (Polyethylene) PE mulch films. However, their slow rate of biodegradation can lead to plastics accumulation in soil. In this study, a commercially available BMF based on poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and poly (lactic acid) (PLA) is examined. Here the effects of gliding arc plasma treatment on the bulk and surface properties, as well as its degradation behavior in soil and compost is studied. An increase in surface oxygen containing species and hydrophilicity was observed following plasma treatment. Only a small hydrophobic recovery was noted over 30 days. No changes in the bulk polymer molecular weight or thermal properties following treatment were noted. However, a decrease in mechanical strength was observed following gliding arc plasma treatment. The onset of film fragmentation in both soil and compost occurred earlier for a plasma treated film and we attribute this to an improvement in the initial adhesion of bacteria on the surface.

Biaxial Orientation of PLA/PBAT/Thermoplastic Cereal Flour Sheets: Structure-Processing-Property Relationships.

This paper investigates the biaxial stretchability of polylactic acid (PLA)/poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT)/thermoplastic cereal flour (TCF) ternary blends with a PLA/PBAT ratio close to 60/40 and a constant TCF content. A twin-screw extrusion process was used to gelatinize the starch and devolatilize the water in order to obtain a water-free TCF, which was then blended into a compatibilized or non-compatibilized PLA/PBAT matrix, introduced in the molten state. These blends were subsequently cast into sheets and biaxially drawn using a biaxial laboratory stretcher. The prepared ternary blends were found to present a typical ductile behavior. Scanning electron micrography highlighted dispersion and adhesion properties in the PLA/PBAT/TCF blends, where two different phases were observed. Moreover, the addition of the thermoplastic cereal flour did not significantly affect the biaxial stretchability of the PLA/PBAT blends but was found to lower the maximum stress before breaking. The modification of the interfacial tension between PLA and PBAT with the compatibilizer Joncryl before mixing with TCF had no effect on the durability of the PLA/PBAT/TCF sheet. Still, it slightly increased the maximum of nominal stress before failure.

Effect of beeswax on the physical and mechanical properties of solution cast poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate)/thermoplastic starch/beeswax films

Biodegradable films of poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT)/thermoplastic starch (TPS)/beeswax have been prepared by solution casting method. Beeswax has been used as a hydrophobic content to improve the water barrier properties of the films. The prepared films have been characterized for tensile properties, morphology, water absorption, and water vapor permeability. Tensile strength of the films initially increases with the addition of beeswax and then decreases with increase in beeswax content. Tensile strength of film with 0.5 wt% of beeswax is about 213% greater than the film without beeswax. Water absorption percentage of films decreases gradually from 18.7% in film without beeswax to 0% with an increase in amount of beeswax, i.e., 0.5wt%, 1wt% and 2wt% due to the hydrophobicity of beeswax. Water vapor permeability of these films reduces upon increasing the amount of beeswax.

Active antimicrobial extruded films for mozzarella cheese from poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and orange oil

Active antimicrobial extruded films for mozzarella cheese from poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and orange oil

Reactive biodegradable extruded blends of thermoplastic starch and polyesters

Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) and poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) are biodegradable polymers applied as alternative materials to non-biodegradable plastics. They have adequate mechanical properties to be used on an industrial scale, but their high cost is a limiting factor. Using thermoplastic starch (TPS) as the main component of the matrix is an alternative to producing low-cost materials. This work aimed to develop PBAT/PBS/TPS biodegradable films by blown extrusion, combining the most attractive properties of each polymer: the ductility of PBAT, the tensile strength of PBS, and the biodegradability and low cost of TPS. PBS/PBAT/TPS (20/10/70 wt%) sample achieved the best balance between hardness, ductility, and strength, with an elongation at break of 32%, a tensile strength of 6 MPa, and Young's modulus (YM) of 56 MPa. Citric acid acted as a multifunctional compound, increasing tensile strength and elongation at break and decreasing YM for all films. It increased the opacity and degree of crystallinity of the films but did not influence the color. FTIR did not indicate chemical reactions between the constituents, and the SEM showed higher compatibility between TPS/PBAT than with PBS. Our work proposed a well-known manufacturing process that allows scaling up the production of biodegradable films.

Modelling the structure-property relationships of high performance PBAT-based biocomposites with natural fibers obtained from Chamaerops humilis dwarf palm

Two fibrous fillers were achieved from stalks and leaves of Chamaerops humilis dwarf palm and tested as reinforcing agents for poly(butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT)-based composites. The influence of filler type and content on the morphomechanical properties of the green composites was assessed. The outcomes of tensile tests pointed out that both fillers are strong candidates to overcome the two main limiting aspects of PBAT, that is, the lack of both stiffness and cost-effectiveness, while preserving its stretchability and environmental sustainability. The remarkable stiffness increments (up to 300%), combined with fair retention of stretchability (33%) and doubled resistance, led to the fabrication of biocomposites with toughness values as high as 20–25 MJ/m3. These results could be ascribed to the combination of several factors, including the formation of an extensive and robust interphasic region. This latter, ascribed to the chemical affinity between aromatic parts of fillers and matrix, presented different features in the two types of fillers, thus endowing resulting biocomposites with a broad array of mechanical performance, which can be predicted by introducing opportune modifications to Halpin-Tsai model which allow considering the crucial role of interphase.