Butterfly Research Articles

The butterflies of El Questro Wilderness Park, with remarks on the taxonomy of the Kimberley fauna, Australia

El Questro Wilderness Park comprises a relatively large privately owned wilderness area in the monsoon tropics of the eastern Kimberley, north-western Australia. Targeted surveys for butterfl ies were conducted between 2009 and 2012 during the dry season. Fifty-three species were recorded; a further two species are recorded in the literature, bringing the total list of butterfl ies for El Questro Wilderness Park to 55 species (or 68% of the Kimberley fauna). Comments are made on their occurrence, relative abundance, habitat preference and larval food plant associations. Several species represent new records for the eastern Kimberley, most of which comprise signifi cant range extensions from previously known coastal localities in the northern and/or western Kimberley. Taxonomic remarks are made for fi ve species listed for the wider Kimberley region for which there is considerable uncertainty. One of these, Telicota ancilla baudina Evans, 1949, is shown to comprise a junior synonym of Telicota augias krefftii (W.J. Macleay, 1866); the others comprise taxonomic misidentifi cations (Pelopidas agna, Theclinesthes serpentatus) or there is doubt regarding their authenticity (Delias mysis, Danaus plexippus). The exclusion of these taxa brings the revised total number of species of butterfl ies recorded for the Kimberley to 81, of which only one is endemic to the region.

The Fate of Butterfly Fragments in Extremity Shaft Comminuted Fractures Treated with Closed Interlocking Intramedullary Nailing

46 통신저자:김 윤 준 부산시 부산진구 개금동 633-165 인제대학교 의과대학 부산백병원 정형외과학교실 Tel:051-890-6129ᆞFax:051-892-6619 E-mail:fracture78@yahoo.co.kr 접수: 2011. 7. 23 심사(수정): 1차 2011. 9. 2, 2차 2011. 10. 18 게재확정: 2011. 11. 7 Address reprint requests to:Yoon-Jun Kim, M.D. Department of Orthopedic, Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, 633-165, Gaegeum-dong, Busanjin-gu, Busan 614-735, Korea Tel:82-51-890-6129ᆞFax:82-51-892-6619 E-mail:fracture78@yahoo.co.kr 상하지 간부 분쇄 골절 시 교합성 골수강내 고정술로 치료 후 잔존한 나비형 골편의 운명

Butterfly wings turned to metal

Butterfly wings turned to metal

Opposing effects of recirculated gases during cranking on cold start of diesel engines

The effect of recirculating engine-out gases into the intake manifold on the cold start of direct-injection diesel engines is investigated. Two types of recirculation are examined. The first is low-pressure recirculation of engine-out gases into the intake manifold where their rate is controlled by a gas recirculation (GR) valve installed between the exhaust and intake manifold. The second is high-pressure recirculation by restricting the flow of the engine-out gases using a butterfly (BF) valve, installed in the exhaust system after the turbocharger to increase the back pressure and the rate of recirculated gases. Since there is no combustion during cranking, these gases contain evaporated hydrocarbons and partial oxidation products, mostly formaldehyde (HCHO). Experimental investigations on a four-cylinder direct-injection diesel engine indicated that high rates of cranking gas recirculation (CGR) increase the ignition delay and lengthen the cranking period. Since higher concentrations of hydrocarbons (HC) are expected to enhance the autoignition process, it is suspected that the recirculated HCHO would have an opposite effect. These opposing effects are investigated using the ChemKin diesel cycle simulation model. The model results demonstrated the effect of HCHO on slowing the autoignition and combustion reactions.

Tracing the origin of disjunct distributions: a case of biogeographical convergence in Pyrgus butterflies

Esta investigacion ha sido financiada por el Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion de Espana (proyectos CGL2007-60516/BOS y CGL2010-21226/BOS para J.L.Hernandez-Roldan, G.Talavera y R.Vila; y la beca BES-2008-002054 para G.Talavera.) y por Genome Canada a traves del Ontario Genomics Institute para P.D.N.Hebert

Rangeland Management for Pollinators

Pollinator conservation and rangelands don’t seem like obvious bedfellows. In this era of sustainability, the connection between pollinator conservation and row crops or pollinator conservation and orchards is obvious. But pollinator conservation and rangelands? The reality is that pollinators are a key component of a healthy rangeland ecosystem. As Kevan stated, pollination is “central to all human beings, livestock, and wildlife.”1 Pollinators are essential for rangeland food production, help with nutrient cycling, and are prey for many birds. In essence, they hold a central position in wildlife food webs. For example, many migratory songbirds require a diet of berries, fruits, and seeds from insect-pollinated plants and pollinator larvae are an important component of the diet of many young birds. Belfrage et al. demonstrated that butterfl y diversity was a good predictor of bird abundance and diversity, apparently due to a shared requirement for a complex plant community.2 Pollinators perform such a range of ecological services in natural ecosystems that they are clearly a keystone group in nearly all terrestrial ecosystems and are necessary for plant reproduction and in forming the basis of an energy-rich food web.3 The relationship between pollinators and rangeland goes both ways. Pollinators are important for rangelands but rangelands are important for pollinators because they can provide habitat. Pollinators in North America include hummingbirds and bats, but insects—mainly bees, butterfl ies, moths, wasps, fl ies, and beetles—make up the vast majority of pollinators. Of these, bees are considered the most important pollinators in temperate North America. There are approximately 4,000 species of native bees in North America, many of which will thrive in the varied conditions offered by rangelands. Shrubland and scrub habitat, in particular, can be very valuable habitat. Surveys of pollinators in different California plant communities show that the chaparral community has the largest diversity of bees per unit area of any ecosystem type. Bee habitat requires two basic components: fl owers on which to forage and nest sites. Many pollinators are adapted to forage on particular plants, so a diverse community of pollinators requires a diverse array of fl owers. This can be easily provided by native grassland comprising a variety of grasses and forbs. Most native bees are solitary-nesting. Around 70% of bee species nest in the ground, excavating shallow tunnels in patches of bare soil, with most of the remaining 30% nesting in cavities in old trees or plant stems. Bumble bees require a small cavity such as an abandoned rodent hole. Ground-nesting bees (both solitary bees and bumble bees) are likely the most important pollinators in grasslands, but fl ies, beetles, and butterfl ies will also be prevalent. Rangeland pollinators have benefi ts that go beyond the boundaries of the range. The role that adjacent natural habitat (including grassland, shrubland, and other rangeland types) plays in providing crop pollination services is increasingly well understood: The value of crop pollination by native, wild bees in the United States is estimated at $3 billion. Proximity to natural or seminatural nonagricultural land is often an important predictor of pollinator diversity in cropland. There is evidence of declines in both managed and wild pollinators. Causes of declines are diffi cult to pinpoint, but loss of habitat due to increasing urbanization, expansion of intensive agriculture, invasive plant species, and the widespread use of pesticides all negatively impact pollinator populations, as do disease and parasites affecting the pollinators themselves. Protection of habitat is one way in which rangelands can be of great signifi cance in protecting and conserving pollinators. Natural habitat is integral to maintaining a long-term population of native pollinators in agricultural landscapes. However, it is important that management of rangelands and other nonarable lands takes into account native pollinators.

An Introduction to the Special Issue on Pollinators

Pollinators provide crucial ecosystem services to rangelands. However, pollinators are undergoing a number of challenges that threaten these services. Our intent in organizing and editing this special issue of Rangelands is to provide those working in rangeland ecosystems information about why pollination is important to rangelands, why rangelands are important to pollinators, and how these relationships are being threatened. Recently pollinators have garnered attention due to high-profi le media coverage of honeybee population declines or collapses. This, coupled with increasing awareness of native pollinator decline, has paved the way for improved management resources for pollinator conservation efforts. Furthermore, federal conservation programs and other conservation-based incentive programs aimed at private lands will likely continue to increase their emphasis on maintaining, enhancing, and restoring pollinator habitat and pollinator populations in rangeland ecosystems. This special issue on pollinators will describe the connections between pollinators and rangelands, including how rangelands enhance pollinators and the services pollinators provide as well as how pollinators benefi t the objectives of rangeland managers. We begin this discussion by presenting a brief overview of how pollination works in rangelands, focusing on how plants grow and reproduce in rangelands and why they bother with bribing animals to help them in this endeavor (Harmon et al.). Benefi ts of pollination extend well beyond plant reproduction and fi tness. In the process of providing pollination services, pollinators are responsible for a host of additional ecosystem services. The importance of pollinators from a wildlife habitat perspective is discussed by Gilgert and Vaughan, along with examples of how rangeland management for pollinators can provide a useful framework for managing wildlife biodiversity. Pollinator diversity is also important in maintaining plant community diversity. Travers et al. highlight the importance of lepidopteran pollinators (moths and butterfl ies) and discuss how pollinators are important to the maintenance of rare plant species. In efforts to bring the issues threatening rangeland pollinators and their habitat to light, Cane describes the challenges that pollinators face in the western United States with an emphasis on wild bees. Rangeland management for pollinators is more specifi cally discussed by Black et al., who provide general considerations to use when looking at common rangeland management practices such as grazing, prescribed burning, mowing, and herbicide use. Although each of these management practices can result in negative consequences for pollinators, they can also be applied in a manner that will benefi t pollinators. Pollinator services are also a large concern for specialty agricultural crops. In our fi nal paper, Chaplin-Kramer et al. illustrate the value of rangeland for supplying pollination services to production agriculture in California. Papers in this issue have been peer-reviewed. Because of space limitations, we limited the number of citations within each article. Interested readers can access supplemental literature and data authors have referenced at www.srmjournals. org. To read more about pollinators visit “Buzzing the Literature” (Solga) for recent literature.

장자 나비의 꿈을 소재로 한 인터렉티브 비디오 구현

디지털 아트의 한 영역으로써 인터렉티브 비디오는 관객이 특정한 관점에서 비디오 공간에 비춰지는 매체적 특성상 거울의 효과가 하나의 비유로써 도입된 바 있으며 이는 미디어의 본질에 접근하는 담론을 자극하였다. 본 논문에서 소개되는 인터렉티브 비디오 작품은 이러한 담론의 연장선에서 개념적으로는 장자의 나비의 꿈에서 나타나는 사상에 기초하며 기술적으로는 컴퓨터 비젼을 이용하여 명암 처리를 통해 관객의 실루엣을 얻음으로써 다수의 그래픽 나비 개체가 이를 추상적으로 그리게 한다. 관객은 그래픽 공간에 투영된 자신의 이미지와 상호작용하면서 내러티브를 생산하게 된다. 시스템에 사운드를 도입하여 공간감을 증강시키고 추가적인 내러티브를 생산할 수 있도록 하였다. 본 작품에서 도입된 컴퓨터 비젼 기법과 개체의 자율행동 및 군집운동 메카니즘에 의한 그래픽 생성이 인터렉티브 비디오를 구현하는 하나의 방식으로 제시된다.

Habitat fragmentation, biodiversity loss and extinction debt

Intensification or abandonment of agricultural land use has led to a severe decline of semi-natural habitats across Europe. This can cause immediate loss of species but also time-delayed extinctions, known as the extinction debt. In a pan-European study of 147 fragmented grassland remnants, we found differences in the extinction debt of species from different trophic levels. Present-day species richness of long-lived vascular plant specialists was better explained by past than current landscape patterns, indicating an extinction debt. In contrast, short-lived butterfly specialists showed no evidence for an extinction debt at a time scale of c. 40 years. Our results indicate that management strategies maintaining the status quo of fragmented habitats are insufficient, as time- delayed extinctions and associated co-extinctions will lead to further biodiversity loss in the future.

Butterflies and Battleships

Butterflies and Battleships

A survey of the Neotropical montane butterflies of the subtribe Pronophilina (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) in the Venezuelan Cordillera de la Costa

The fauna of montane satyrine butterflies of the subtribe Pronophilina (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) is surveyed in the Venezuelan Cordillera de la Costa, a long but relatively low range of mountains consisting of two parallel units, the northern and higher Serranía del Litoral and the southern, lower Serranía del Interior. The subtribe Pronophilina is briefly characterized. Twenty-three known species are listed and discussed. One new species, Eretris neocycla n. sp., and three new subspecies, Corades medeba pittieri n. ssp., Pedaliodes piletha costae n. ssp. and Pedaliodes manis ivica n. ssp., are described. Ten lectotypes are designated. Thiemeia phoronea obscurata Krüger is reinstated as a valid subspecies, based on female characters. Faunal affinities and local endemism ratio are evaluated. Alpha-diversity is discussed and compared with that of other South American ranges. Two elevational species assemblages are identified, lower and upper, the latter confined to the Serranía del Litoral.

How butterfly wings get their colors

How butterfly wings get their colors

Name-bearing Types of Lepidoptera (Insecta), excluding Rhopalocera, in the National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh

This article documents the primary (49 species) and secondary (19 species) type material of moths (Lepidoptera: Insecta) present in the collections of the National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh. Only the primary types (i.e., holotypes and syntypes) are detailed in full and, under their respective authors, these are: K.P.Bland Crypsithyris FALCOVALVA; J.Clayton Beggeria BICORNIS, Phazaca NAKULA, Palpita SPINOSA, Palpita VITIENSIS; G.F.Hampson (1860–1936) Tarache FASCIALIS, Eustrotia OZARBICA; W.J.Kaye (1875–1967) Hydrias ALBIOCHREA, Hypena BRODESCENS, Pococera BRUNNAPEX, Rifargia BRUNNIPENNIS, Lamontia CALIBANA, Plusiodonta CUPRISTRIA, Samea DELICATA, Syngria DELICATA, Mydropastea DISPARATA, Phostria DUPLICATA, Lephana EXCISATA, Sisyrosea GUAICA, Sanys IMPLACATA, Eucalypetra INSUETALIS, Phastia MARICOLOR, Epitomiptera MARMORATA, Parangitia MICAPENNIS, Bryolimnia MONODONTA, Hyalosticta NAPARIMALIS, Sylepta [sic] NIGRALIS, Parangitia NIGROFULGENS, Dicentria NONDESCRIPTA, Metalectra PIPERATA, Sylepta [sic] SEMINIGRALIS, Claphe SIMILAVIS, Redara [sic] TINCTURALIS, Acrolophus TRETUS; J.H.Leech (1862–1900) Percnia FUMIDARIA, Percnia GRISEARIA, Mastigophorus OCHREISTIGMA; F.Moore (1830–1907) Polythlipta DIVARICATA, Artona QUADRIMACULATA; E.C.Pelham-Clinton (1920–1988) Parornix LEUCOSTOLA, Bucculatrix MEREI; D.Povolńy Scrobipalpa CLINTONI; A.R.Richardson (1904–1981) Cleora cinctaria BOWESI, Eumichtis lichenea SCILLONEA, Anaitis plagiata SCOTICA, Chesias rufata SCOTICA; E.P.Wiltshire (1910–2004) Teracotona MURTAFAA, Eublemma MUSCATENSIS, Scopula caesaria WALKEROS.

Solutions Concerning the Improvement of Multiplication Technology of Argyranthemum frutescens (L.) Sch. Bip

Argyranthemum frutescens (Chrysanthemum frutescens L.), the marguerite, is a perennial plant known for its flowers. It is native to the Canary Islands, their native habitat ranges from the seashore, woodland edges and slopes of volcanic mountains. Marguerites have been grown for more than 200 years, with more than 80 types now available (most of them are hybrids). The aim of the research was to improve the current assortment of floricultural plants in Romania, with new varieties of ornamental species with different morphological characteristics, to be promoted and placed in production. Along with taking the study of new varieties, it has studying the improvement of the culture technology, too. In the present paper, we made some research’s regarding the influence of rooting substrate on morphological characters of two varieties of Argyranthemum frutescens L. cuttings („Gypsy Rose” and „Butterfly”), which were followed the rooting process in different substrates (perlite and peat + perlite).

Design and clinical practice of the controllable pressure infusion

Objective To prolong the retention time of drugs in the intestines and to simplify the operation steps.Methods The Controllable Pressure Infusion was made of nonpoisonous polyethylene.60 patients with kidney failure were randomly divided into experimental group and control group, 30 cases in each group.The former received the controllable pressure infusion for enema, while the latter received the injection set for enema.The following index were recorded, such as the time of injection and keep, the patient's subjective feelings ( abdominal butterfly, anus fall to bloated sense ), the condition of physic liquor flowed outward and the rate of independent operation.Results In experimental group, compared with the control group, the time of injection reduced ( P < 0.01 ), the time of keep added ( P < 0.01 ), the patient' s subjective feelings reduced ( P < 0.05 ), the rate of independent operation was raised ( P < 0.001 ).Conclusions The controllable pressure infusion is helpful to prolong the retention time of drugs in the intestines, patient can independently operate. Key words: Pressure; Enema; Clinical practice; Innovation

Nature's fluctuating colour captured on canvas?

For centuries artists and natural scientists have been captivated by the colour changing effects of iridescence. Producing brilliant fl ashes of colour in the natural world, the phenomenon is best known in the displays of ‘living jewels’, e.g. tropical birds and butterfl ies, where the colour perceived changes with viewing angle. Such striking effects are not produced by chemical pigments but by complex physical structures interplaying with light. Until now, artists have tried to capture these luminous, oscillating colours with varying degrees of success. However, for the fi rst time, latest advances in ‘pigment’ technology offer artists the exciting, but challenging, potential to introduce the full spectacle of iridescence into painting. These ‘pigments’ (developed with lucrative industrial applications in mind) currently remain restricted to commercial usage. The major drawback seriously impeding their advancement in art is that they do not adhere to colour theory as applied in painting. Having worked on adapting iridescent technology from its inception, gradual emergence and now rapid expansion, the author traces the sustained effort necessary on her part to overcome the many inherent challenges. Interweaving the fi ndings of art theory, physics and personal studio practice, an attempt is made to position the new technology within the wider discourse on colour. And readers are furnished with an increased understanding of the scientifi c and aesthetic principles governing iridescence.

Thermo-hydraulics, colour and art

This paper describes a thermo-hydraulics experiment performed on the mock-up of the liquid-metal cooled steel target container of a spallation neutron source. The beam of the Paul Scherrer Institute 600 MeV proton accelerator is used to obtain a high-neutron fl ux. This bombards a target under realistic experimental condi- tions, hence, becoming a probe for scientifi c experiments. The goal was to analyse and visualise the cooling of the target proton entrance window. In the mock-up, heat removal is realised by forced convection of a mercury coolant. A description of the test set-up is given and qualitative as well as quantitative results from the cooling process are presented visually. In addition, an improvement in interpretation of data is shown by using colours. In the fi nal section, an artistic output entitled 'The Collection' is presented; this consists of artifi cially-coloured infrared thermograms resembling, and compared with, butterfl ies. As part of the development programme of the Swiss Intense Neutron Source (SINQ) at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) and the European Spallation Source (ESS), neutron spallation sources exper- imental concepts with liquid-metal (LM) targets have been proposed (1). One concept using a high-power neutron spallation source with a circulated LM target is shown in Fig. 1. The 600 MeV proton beam of the PSI accelerator penetrates into the target of the SINQ facility through a beam entry window. This window is strongly heated by the proton beam, the heat deposition in the steel wall resulting in a heat fl ux q* of up to 140 W/cm 2 at the inner surface of the window. The LM, in this case, mercury, is simultaneously used as target material and coolant. It is contained in an approximately 4-m long structure made of concentric pipes and vessels. The neu- tron-producing part of the target consists of two concentric steel pipes fi lled with mercury and placed in the centre of the SINQ moderator tank. The lower part of the outer pipe is closed off with a hemispherical shell, i.e. LM container (LMC), causing the LM fldown the annulus to perform a U-turn and to return upwards through the inner riser pipe (RP) to the electro-magnetic pump and the target heat exchanger. The experiments on the cooling of the proton beam entry window are part of the development pro- gramme for neutron spallation sources with LM targets at PSI. A two-dimensional and dynamic (2DD) method of using infrared thermography (IRT) techniques is applied for visualising the cooling effi - ciency of the heated window wall. This 2DD IRT methodology developed at PSI was around 2000 (2), and constantly improved upon subsequently (3, 4). It allows the elaboration of heat transfer coeffi cient (HTC) charts. The 2DD IRT methodology is based on the emissivity-corrected measurement of the thermal radiation fi eld emitted from the outer surface and arithmetical constructions of the temperature fi elds on outer and inner surfaces of the LMC window. Finally, the fi eld of the differential temperature, i.e. the difference between the inner-surface temperature and the bulk LM coolant temperature, is worked out. In this way, the differential temperature thermograms obtained, together with known val- ues of the applied heat fl ux, allow both qualitative and quantitative HTC characteristics of the cooling to be determined. The patterns of the fl ow in the boundary layer on the inner surface of the window wall are made visible. Finally, animated IR differential thermogram sequences can be generated, allowing

Effects of plant structure on butterfly diversity in Mt. Marsabit Forest - northern Kenya

Butterflies, like most forest dependent animals are good ecological indicators of the health of the forests they dwell. For example, butterfly species richness decreases after a forest disturbance and fragmentation but a few species may subsequently invade the forest fragment and boost the species richness. Studies were conducted to determine the effects of human activity and seasonal changes on butterfly species in the affected new habitats. Results showed that both seasonal and habitat changes significantly affect the butterfly abundance (P = 0.0001). Similarly, there was significant correlation between plant diversity and butterfly diversity in wet season (r = 0.854) and dry season (r = 0.855). The significance of these studies as a useful tool for sustainable forest use and conservation is discussed. Resume Les papillons, comme la plupart des animaux dependant de la foret, sont de bons indicateurs ecologiques de la sante des forets qu’ils occupent. Par exemple, la richesse d’une foret en especes de papillons diminue suite a sa perturbation et a sa fragmentation, mais quelques especes peuvent par la suite envahir la foret et booster la richesse en especes. On a realise des etudes pour determiner les effets des activites humaines et des changements saisonniers sur les especes de papillons dans des habitats recemment touches. Les resultats ont montre que tant les changements saisonniers que les changements de l’habitat affectent significativement l’abondance des papillons (P = 0.0001). De meme, il y avait une correlation significative entre la diversite des plantes et celle des papillons en saison des pluies (r = 0.854) et en saison seche (r = 0.855). L’on discute de l’importance de ces etudes comme outil utile a l’utilisation et a la conservation de la foret.

Visitantes florais de Aechmea constantinii (Mez) L. B. Sm.(Bromeliaceae) em um remanescente da Mata Atlântica do Nordeste Oriental

This study aims to determine the fl oral visitors and potential pollinators of Aechmea constantinii (Mez) L. B. Sm. (Bromeliaceae), a bromeliad endemic to the Brazilian Northeast Atlantic Rainforest. Reproductively-active individuals were observed systematically and their visitors were recorded and determined. The main recorded fl oral visitors were Glaucis hirsutus, Phaethornis ruber and Phaethornis pretrei (hummingbirds) which executed frontal functional fl oral visits in which they touched the reproductive parts of the fl owers. Visits of Plebeia fl avocincta, Plebeia sp., Trigona spinipes and Euglossa cordata (bees) and Talides sergestu and Strymon ziba (butterfl ies) were also recorded. In addition, two ants (Hymenoptera, Insecta, Formicidae) were identifi ed in activity on the fl oral scapes and fl owers of the studied bromeliad. The suggestion is made in the study that the A. constantinii is pollinated by hummingbirds since these birds executed direct frontal visits to the fl owers, touching reproductive structures. The identifi cation of pollen on the bodies of bees and butterfl ies, as well as the contact executed by visitors, with the stigma of the visited fl owers, offered an indication that these species may exert an infl uence as secondary pollinators of Aechmea constantinii.

Monitoring Lymantria monacha L. Species in Resinous Forests of Toplita-Harghita Forest Deparment

In range of Topliţa forest district, number of butterflies caught in a pheromonal trap, being small, detection is made only using pheromonal method, using different types of traps: panel trap – 30x40 cm, with adhesive on one side; tetratrap trap - lower panel adhesive; funnel trap, soaked with pheromone baits Atralymon produced by Institute of Chemistry Cluj. Instalation of pheromonal traps, is done in every spruce, fir and mixed forest with beech, where spruce and fir have in compozition of forest over 30 %. will not count tree age, in monitoring sistem. Pheromonal traps are installed, before beginning flight butterflies, on july 11 altitudes <800m, on 21 july on altitudes between 800-1400m, and on 26 july on altitudes over 1400m. One pheromonal trap is one „control point” this will receive a serial number in forest lot, will be inscribed in the observations book of field staff, and on to trees which installs the traps, and this will be marked with a circle of paint to be easily identified, and to maintain in every year the same control points. Density of control points varies, depending on the area's vulnerability and depending on population level made in previous years, in Oriental Carpathians will be installed one pheromonal trap/50ha.