Business Group Affiliated Firms Research Articles

A bird in the hand is better than two in the bush: Investigating the relationship between financial slack and profitability in business groups

Using arguments from the behavioral theory of the firm, agency theory, and the literature on internal capital markets, this article investigates the relationship between financial slack and firms’ profitability in standalone versus business group–affiliated firms. Using a large sample of French privately held firms, we show that there is a quadratic, inverse U-shape relationship between financial slack and profitability for privately held firms. We observe that the relation is steeper for business group affiliated firms than for standalone firms, which is consistent with the idea that firms in business groups are in competition for the business groups resources. Moreover, we explore whether business groups characteristics and position and weight of a given affiliated firm in the business group organization influence the impact of financial slack on profitability. Our results show that for firms that are closest to the business group head firm and that have a higher weight in the business groups, the quadratic, inverse U-shaped relationship is steeper. These findings suggest that the bargaining power that firms have in business groups plays an important role in explaining the relation between financial slack and profitability. JEL CLASSIFICATION: G32, L22 and L25.

Internationalization of business group affiliated firms: Network based explanation

This study attempts to explain the internationalization of business group (BG) affiliated firm with the help of network-based arguments. Considering that both costs and benefits are differentially associated with the characteristics of a BG, we propose that group level diversification has a U-shaped relationship with affiliated-firms’ levels of internationalization. We introduce two affiliate level contingent factors – market knowledge and technology knowledge. Our empirical analyses of 3,204 Indian BG affiliated firms (16,110 firm-years) for the period 2006–2014 lends support to the U-shaped direct effect, with an observed flattening effect of market knowledge, but the expected moderating effect of technology knowledge shows no evidence in our data. From our arguments and findings, we provide both a theoretical extension to the BG literature and connect to managerial implications relevant to the internationalization of BG-affiliated firms.

Internal Capital Markets, Corporate Investment, and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Korean Business Groups

This paper examines whether the investment of Korean business group ("chaebol") affiliated firms behaved differently from that of non-chaebol firms in response to the COVID-19 outbreak. I show that chaebol firms cut back investment to a lesser degree than similar non-chaebol firms. Chaebol firms with higher-than-industry-median market-to-book ratios invested more and experienced less decline in their stock prices, while I do not find such relationships for non-chaebol firms. This paper provides evidence that chaebol internal capital markets helped mitigate the negative effects of the pandemic on firm investment and values.

Agency conflict in diversified business groups and performance of affiliated firms in India

This study examines how diversification in Indian business groups creates multiple forms of agency problems and has performance implications for group affiliated firms. Departing from prior literature which emphasizes the principal–principal agency conflict in business groups, we argue that business group diversification leads to dual agency problems between controlling and minority shareholders (principal–principal) and managers and shareholders (principal–agent) in affiliated firms. Both these agency problems arise in diversified business groups through cross-subsidization of affiliated firms by inefficient capital investment, continuing presence of affiliated firms in declining industries, tunneling of resources from profitable affiliated firms, lack of attention by business group headquarters to affiliated firms, and affiliated firm managers’ sense of perceived security which negatively impacts affiliated firms’ performance. These agency issues are reduced with the increase in product market competition from exposure to international markets and through concentrated promoter ownership in the affiliated firms. Our hypothesized model finds empirical support in a sample of 828 business group affiliated firms in India.

Agency conflict in diversified business groups and performance of affiliated firms in India: Contingent effect of external constraint and internal governance

This study examines how diversification in Indian business groups creates multiple forms of agency problems and has performance implications for group-affiliated firms. Departing from prior literature which emphasizes the principal–principal agency conflict in business groups, we argue that business group diversification leads to dual agency problems between controlling and minority shareholders (principal–principal) and shareholders and managers (principal–agent) in affiliated firms. Both these agency problems arise in diversified business groups through cross-subsidization of affiliated firms by inefficient capital investment, continuing presence of affiliated firms in declining industries, tunneling of resources from profitable affiliated firms, lack of attention by business group headquarters to affiliated firms, and affiliated firm managers' sense of perceived security, which negatively impacts affiliated firms’ performance. These agency issues are reduced with the increase in product market competition from exposure to international markets and through concentrated promoter ownership in the affiliated firms. Our hypothesized model finds empirical support in a sample of 828 business group–affiliated firms in India.

Constraint absorption in emerging economies: the role of business groups

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to highlight the motivation for firms in emerging economies to engage in constraint absorption. It illustrates the mechanisms that enable business group (BG) affiliated firms to manage interdependencies vis-à-vis standalone firms in emerging economies.Design/methodology/approachThe propositions outlined in this study are rooted in the theoretical lens of resource dependence theory (RDT). The authors integrate RDT with the resource-based view and institutional theory to explain the effect of BG affiliation on the relationship between the two types of interdependence (i.e. mutual dependence and power imbalance) and the likelihood of constraint absorption.FindingsThis paper theorizes that BG affiliation influences the relationship between mutual dependence/power imbalance and the likelihood of constraint absorption. However, if both the firms in a dyad are affiliated to a BG, the likelihood of constraint absorption is likely to be low owing to a process called “co-optation” even if mutual dependence or power imbalance between the firms is high.Originality/valueThis paper highlights how BG affiliated firms are better at managing contingencies in the external environment vis-à-vis standalone firms. This paper also advises managers that the type of organizational form is an important factor to be considered while engaging in constraint absorption in an emerging economy.

The Rise of Scientific Research in Corporate America

Corporate science in America emerged in the interwar period, as some companies set up state-of-the-art corporate laboratories, hired trained scientists, and embarked upon basic research of the kind we would associate today with academic institutions. Using a newly assembled dataset on U.S. companies between 1926 and 1940 combining information on corporate ownership, organization, research and innovation, we attempt to explain the rise of corporate research. We argue that it was driven by companies trying to take advantage of opportunities for innovation made possible by scientific advances and an underdeveloped academic research system in the United States. Measuring field-specific scientific backwardness in several different ways, we find that large firms, business group affiliated firms, and firms close to the technological frontier were more likely to initiate scientific research. We also find that companies in monopolistic or concentrated industries were more likely to engage in basic research. Corporate research was positively correlated with novel and valuable patents, and with market-to-book ratios. For companies choosing to do so, investment in corporate research seems to have paid off. The results shed light on the link between corporate organization, market structure and corporate science.

Business Groups and Employment

Using a newly assembled 50-country firm-level database spanning 19 years, we document a bright side for employees of business group–affiliated firms: less pronounced fluctuations in employment than unaffiliated firms in response to macroeconomic shocks. The results are robust to a variety of tests designed to mitigate endogeneity concerns, including propensity score matching and comparisons of successful and failed group integrations, and are present in both booms and recessions. Our results are most consistent with group internal labor markets rather than several alternative explanations (internal capital markets, a lower overall sensitivity to shocks in group firms, or agency problems). This paper was accepted by David Simchi-Levi, finance.

Business Groups and Firm-Specific Stock Returns

In lower-income economies, stocks exhibit less idiosyncratic volatility and business groups are more prevalent. This study connects these two findings by showing that business group affiliated firms’ stock returns exhibit less idiosyncratic volatility than do the returns of otherwise similar unaffiliated firms. Global commodity price shocks are common shocks that contribute to firm-level idiosyncratic risk because they affect industries heterogeneously. Idiosyncratic components of commodity shocks are incorporated less into idiosyncratic returns of group affiliates than unaffiliated firms in the same industry and economy. Identification follows from difference-in-difference tests exploiting successful and matched-exogenously-failed control block transactions.

Business groups and the incorporation of firm-specific shocks into stock prices

Firm-specific information has a damped effect on business group-affiliated firms’ stock prices. Such firms’ idiosyncratic stock returns are less responsive to idiosyncratic commodity price shocks than are the idiosyncratic returns of otherwise similar unaffiliated firms in the same country and commodity-sensitive industry. Using global commodity shocks means we assess responses to common idiosyncratic shocks of the same magnitude, frequency, and observability. Further identification follows from difference-in-difference tests exploiting successful and matched exogenously failed control block transactions. We conclude that business group firms’ stock prices provide less firm-specific information to capital providers and managers.

Strategic-Asset-Seeking Foreign Direct Investment by Chinese Firms

We examine the relationship between business group affiliation of Chinese firms and their foreign acquisitive behaviour in terms of technology and brand-oriented strategic assets. Drawing on new internalization theory and the business group literature, we assert that Chinese business group affiliated firms will more likely pursue foreign acquisitions to seek patents but less likely to pursue foreign acquisitions to seek trademarks. Patents have non-location-bounded (NLB) properties which mean they can be exploited by the business group – not just the firm - back in the domestic market, while trademarks have location bounded (LB) properties which mean they are less easy to exploit by a business group domestically. Using a sample of 779 Chinese cross-border acquisitions between 2006 and 2015, we find support for our hypothesis relating to patents but not for trademarks. Additional tests identify the importance of private-ownership and the presence of an R&D centre within the business group as determinants of member firms’ patent- and trademark seeking through foreign acquisition. The findings reveal the importance of a key home country effect – business group affiliation – on how firms in emerging economies seek strategic assets abroad as part of their drive to overcome latecomer disadvantages and technological backwardness.

Environmental Versus Firm-level Determinants of Firm Growth: A Structural Equation Modelling for Micro-level Analysis of Business Group Firms

The study of the determinants of firms’ growth should consider both internal and external factors: these are the firms’ organizational features and the external competitive environment, which is also named market type, in which the firm operates. Among the internal factors, the organization model is the most important one. Among the factors that define the influence of market structure on a firm’s performance, there is business group affiliation, market concentration and business group heterogeneity. The aim of this study is to determine, in the context of business group affiliated firms, if there exists an influence of these internal and external factors. Using the structural equation model approach, results showed that a firm’s growth is influenced by both factors, and that the internal ones are prevalent.

Financing constraints and exports: Evidence from manufacturing firms in India

This paper examines the relationship between external financing constraints and the intensive margin of exports for manufacturing firms in India. We use a sample of nearly 3200 firms over the period: 2000–2015 and construct a multivariate index proposed by Musso and Schiavo (J Evol Econ 18(2):135–149, 2008) to estimate the degree of external financing constraints. We find that an increase in the degree of external financing constraints faced is associated with lower firm-level exports and this result holds even after accounting for endogeneity issues. We next examine whether business group-affiliated firms are less dependent on external finance to support their overseas sales. We find that financing constraints are a significant binding factor even for firms with access to internal capital markets. Moreover, we find that firm size matters, as a decline in the financial health of small- and medium-sized firms is associated with a significantly larger decline in their export levels. Finally, we find some evidence of industry-level heterogeneity, as financing constraints lead to a more pronounced decline in the exports of firms in industries with greater dependence on external finance.

The impact of macroeconomic condition on investment-cash flow sensitivity of Indian firms

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of the macroeconomic condition on investment-cash flow sensitivity (ICFS) of Indian firms and examine whether the effect of macroeconomic condition on ICFS depends on the size and group affiliation of the firm.Design/methodology/approachAn empirical investigation is conducted using a dynamic panel data model or more specifically system generalized method of moments (GMM) estimation technique.FindingsEmpirical findings postulate that the availability of cash flow influences the investment decisions which depicts that Indian manufacturing firms are internally as well as externally financially constrained. This study finds that good economic condition (period of high GDP growth rate) reduces the ICFS, although this effect is stronger for small-sized and standalone firms than the large-sized and business group affiliated firms. The authors find that macroeconomic condition has a positive and significant effect on investment decisions.Research limitations/implicationsThis study has considered only the non-financial sector. The future research could explore the effect of macroeconomic condition on ICFS might be affected by firm other characteristics such as firm age and firm capital structure.Social implicationsThe government should provide loan on the low rate to the small-sized firms and standalone firms because it is very difficult for these firms to finance their investment during the bad economic condition (period of low high GDP growth rate).Originality/valueThis study contributes to the existing literature by analyzing the impact of the macroeconomic condition on ICFS as well as investment decisions of the Indian manufacturing firms, which is an unexplored issue from an emerging market perspective. To the best of my knowledge, this is a first-ever study which explores the effect of macroeconomic condition on investment decisions with respect to business group affiliation and firm size.

Access to internal capital, creditor rights and corporate borrowing: Does group affiliation matter?

We examine whether the effect of increased creditor rights on corporate borrowing depends on firm's access to internal capital. By exploiting a creditor protection reform in India, empirical outcomes strongly indicate that strengthening of creditor rights leads to increased corporate borrowing among firms that have constrained access to internal capital compared to business group affiliated firms, which have relatively easier access to internal capital. Further, the increased corporate borrowing by firms with constrained access to internal capital, in the post-reform period, is associated with a greater expansion of real investments, improved operational performance, and better market valuation. Taken together, these findings indicate that expanding creditor rights may aid in improving allocative efficiency.

Comparative review of business group affiliates and firms’ performance

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to synthesize empirical results relating to antecedents influencing differences in performance between business group (BG) affiliated firms and independent firms in emerging economies.Design/methodology/approachA metanalysis was conducted in this research in which samples were collected, and a continuous data set for figuring the differentiation between group and non-group variables was selected and analyzed. These variables included performance, diversification, ownership characteristics, firm characteristics and group characteristics.FindingsThe research presents a set of hypotheses from a model that shows the influences of factors moderating the differences between the performance of BG affiliates and independent firms, including governance and the kinds of strategic choices which these firms make. Four of the five hypotheses were totally supported, showing the importance of differentiating affiliates’ and independent firms’ performance in terms of ownership concentration, dividend payout, leverage, R&D, as well as diversification and a firm’s age and size.Originality/valueThe study focused its research on an examination of pyramid and cross-holding groups in order to reveal the role of the core firms. It also examines ownership concentration, as well as internal relationships with capital structure, and the effect which these have on firm performance, in order to further understand the relationship among BGs, corporate governance and performance in emerging-market economies.

Spillover Effects of Capital Expenditure Announcements Within Business Groups

AbstractUsing the capital expenditure announcements of Taiwanese business group affiliated firms, this study examines whether the group diversification and ownership structure influence intragroup spillover effects. We find that the stock price reactions of the announcing firms are positively associated with both the stock price reactions and the post‐announcement long‐term performance of their non‐announcing group peers. More importantly, the evidence shows that this positive spillover effect weakens for business groups associated with a pyramidal ownership structure. The evidence supports the conjecture that principal–principal conflicts play an important role in moderating the spillover effects in a business group. The findings further show that the spillover effects are stronger during periods of financial crises. Finally, in the 3‐year period following announcements, the non‐announcing group members experience declining industry‐adjusted performance.

Peer Effect on Corporate Social Responsibility

This study explores a firm's response to institutional pressure from industry peers on their Social community spending. Social community spending is symbolic of the fulfillment of a firm's corporate social responsibility (CSR). The authors hypothesize that mimetic isomorphism occurs among firms in an industry and organizational characteristics, i.e., business group affiliation, ownership status (state-owned versus private), and firm size strengthen or weaken the influence of industry peers. The authors test the propositions on a pooled time-series cross-sectional data of firms in India, with 3,307 observations from 2009-2017 using Generalized Least Squares (GLS) random-effects model. The findings suggest industry peers have a positive influence on a firm's SCS, and this effect is stronger for state-owned enterprises and large firms and weaker for a business group affiliated firms which further aggravates with group size. This article establishes the positive role of the industry association in driving its member firm's SCS and offers an understanding of the contingencies in the above relationship.

Investment-Cash Flow Sensitivity and Financing Constraints: Study of Pakistani Business Group Firms

A large discrepancy exists on the use of the investment–cash flow sensitivity as a measure of financing constraints of firms. We examine this discrepancy by considering business group affiliated firms in Pakistan. The study includes 58 group affiliated firms and 32 non-group affiliated firms listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange during 2006-2010. Results of OLS and 2SLS shows a positive investment-cash flow sensitivity for business group affiliated firms and negative investment cash flow sensitivity for non-group affiliated firms. Additional tests accordingly express that investment-cash flow sensitivity of Pakistani group affiliated firms is significantly lower to non-group affiliated firms.

Performance of business group affiliated firms in emerging markets

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the existing mechanism through which business group affiliated firms in emerging markets (EMs) continue to generate superior performance.Design/methodology/approachThe authors build our argument on the basis of how business group affiliation in EM facilitates internationalization and investment into innovation in affiliated firms compared to un-affiliated firm, resulting in higher firm performance. The authors use advance statistical modeling – causal mediation analysis to separate direct effect and indirect effect of business group affiliation in EM on performance through internationalization and investment into innovation of business group affiliated firms as mediating variables.FindingsBased on 122,479 observations (firm year) from 17,235 Indian business group affiliated and un-affiliated firms, the findings help to identify that internationalization and investment into innovation of business group affiliated firms do have a mediating role in affiliation–performance relationship for EM business groups.Originality/valueThis study unravels the existing causal chain between business group affiliation in EMs and subsequent performance of affiliated firms. The authors complement institutional argument for superior performance of business group affiliation and focus on the performance implication of mediating strategic decisions in affiliated firms.