Bus Commuters Research Articles

A travel mode comparison of commuters' exposures to air pollutants in Barcelona

Daily commutes may contribute disproportionately to overall daily inhalations of urban air contaminants. Understanding factors that explain variability of exposures during travel, and especially differences across transportation modes, is essential to accurately assess health impacts of traffic emissions and to develop effective mitigating measures. We evaluated exposures and inhaled doses of air pollution and assessed factors that contributed to their variability in different travel modes in Barcelona. Black carbon (BC), ultrafine particles (UFP), carbon monoxide (CO), fine particle mass (PM2.5) and carbon dioxide (CO2) were measured and compared across walk, bike, bus, and car modes for a total of 172 trips made on two different round trip routes. On average, the car mode experienced highest concentrations for all contaminants. In pairwise t-tests between concurrent mode runs, statistically significant differences were found for cars compared to walking and biking. Car-to-walk or car-to-bike concentration ratios ranged from 1.3 for CO2 to 25 for CO and were 2–3 for PM2.5, BC, and UFP. In multivariate analyses, travel mode explained the greatest variability in travel exposures, from 8% for PM2.5 to 70% for CO. Different modal patterns emerged when estimating daily inhaled dose, with active commuters' two to three times greater total inhalation volume during travel producing about equal UFP and BC daily inhaled doses to car commuters and 33–50% higher UFP and BC doses compared to bus commuters. These findings, however, are specific to the bike and pedestrian lanes in this study being immediately adjacent to the roadways measured. Dedicated bike or pedestrian routes away from traffic would lead to lower active travel doses.

Personal Exposure to Air Pollution for Various Modes of Transport in Auckland, New Zealand

This paper investigates the carbon monoxide (CO) doses received while commuting by different modes (car, bus, train, motorcycle, bicycle and running), taking into account the commute time as well as the level of physical activity required. While the participants were constrained to travel at specific peak traffic times and between designated start and end points, they were free to choose a route appropriate for their mode of transport. The results of this study suggest that the lowest exposures (concentrations of pollutants) are experienced by train commuters, largely a reflection of the routes being removed from any significant road traffic. Motorcyclists experienced significantly higher average concentrations as a result of high-concentration and very-short-duration peaks not seen in the traces of car and bus commuters travelling on the same road. Travel by bus along a dedicated busway was also found to be effective in reducing commuter air pollution exposure compared to travel by car on a congested stretch of motorway. The average concentrations to which cyclists and runners were exposed were found to be not significantly different for those travelling by car or bus (except when on dedicated pedestrian/cycleways). However, when the increased physical activity that is required is taken into account (leading to higher volumes of air breathed) along with the increased commuting time (especially in the case of runners), the air pollution doses (as estimated by the product of the concentration, commute time and breathing factor) were found to be significantly higher than for the motorised modes. The results suggest that separate pedestrian/cycleways go some way towards providing healthier options for cyclists and pedestrians.

Comparisons of personal exposure to PM2.5 and CO by different commuting modes in Beijing, China

BackgroundEpidemiological studies have shown that commuting in traffic is associated with adverse health effects. It is vital to investigate commuters' exposure to traffic-related air pollutants before considering potential health risks. However, there are relatively few publications considering commuters' personal exposure in China. MethodWe carried out a field investigation measuring commuters' personal exposure to particulate matter ≤2.5μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO) by three commuting modes in Beijing. Both PM2.5 and CO personal concentrations and whole trip exposures were compared among the three commuting modes. ResultsAfter controlling confounding factors, we found that taxi commuters were exposed to lower concentrations of PM2.5 (31.64±20.77μg/m3) compared with bus commuters (42.40±23.36μg/m3) and cyclists (49.10±26.60μg/m3). By contrast, CO personal concentrations were significantly higher when commuting by taxi (5.21±1.52ppm) than by bus (2.41±0.99ppm) and bicycle (1.90±0.55ppm). However, when inhalation rates and trip duration were taken into consideration, cyclists experienced the highest whole trip exposures to both PM2.5 and CO (p<0.05). We also found fixed site monitoring data were not appropriate surrogates for personal exposure while commuting, especially during traffic heavy times. ConclusionPM2.5 and CO personal concentrations were greatly influenced by the commuting mode. Furthermore, the highest whole trip exposures to PM2.5 and CO which cyclists experienced indicates it is not preferable to commute by bicycle in a relatively high air polluted environment. Cyclists are possibly subject to greater health risks than other commuters. Thus further research needs to be conducted to investigate the health risks associated with cycling.

Efficacy of recent transport policy making and implementation in South Africa

Despite the importance of transport to the social and economic development of a country, very little, if any, work appears to have been done in South Africa to assess the impact of transport policy in achieving its aims and objectives. Two policy areas that have wide social and economic impacts are the public transport industry and the development of the national roads network. Public transport, or more specifically commuter bus transport policy, is aimed at improving the mobility and affordability of the travelling public while at the same time increasing the transparency of the subsidy system through a tender and negotiated contract regimen. The policy on national roads directly impacts the general economy as an estimated 88% of all freight tonnage (excluding the dedicated iron ore and coal lines of Transnet Freight Rail) is moved over the road network of South Africa with the national roads linking the main economic centres of the country. This research assesses the impact of these two areas of policy making by comparing policies for commuter bus transport and primary (national) roads for two policy periods, namely, 1986 to 1994 and 1994 to 2004. The research methodology used is that of the mixed-methods research procedure explained more fully in the article and the annexure to the paper. The research arrives at conclusions in respect of the impact of the policy on the problems and issues in the two separate sectors of transport during the policy periods analysed. It also draws conclusions on the policy-making process used as well as identifying deficiencies in the process. Finally it makes recommendations to address these inadequacies.

Robust models for the utilization of public bus transport services in Malaysia

Unless public transportation is efficient, affordable, clean, comfortable and convenient, people would otherwise resort to drive to their destinations. The increased in the number of private vehicles on the road in Malaysia testifies to the preference of driving to work or places of leisure for many reasons. It could also quite easily point to the ailing public transport industry save for a few developed countries that are endowed with an enviable public transport system. The overall improvement of public transportation augmented with selective restrictions of private vehicle use would invariably improve the utilization of public transportation. This article proposes a conceptual model to assess perceived Bus transport utilization. It uses a categorical survey method to identify the preferences of Bus commuters to assess utilization. This conceptual model also allows managers to identify cost effective strategies within the model that are readily implementable within a relatively short duration to improve the utilization. In addition, the model is flexible enough to allow customization by management to improve the utilization within its own set of constraints. Key words: Public bus transport, utilization, reliability of schedule, safety and comfort, information service, season ticket, ticket pricing.

Preferred Mode Choice Model for Commuter Purpose Based on Multinominal Logit Model

As a quasi-public traffic mode, more and more attention has been paid to the commuter bus to ease the traffic congestion. To get the travel behaviors of the commuters to which the commuter bus is available, The RP and SP survey about the travel behavior of commuters were carried out and the influencing factors of mode choice are discussed. The commuting mode combinations were found to exist during the decision-making process and there exist the preferred mode and secondary mode for each individual for one trip mode choice. The preferred mode choice model is established based on the multinomial logit mode. The results show that gender, month income, vehicle ownership, commuter cost, and commuter time have marked influences on the result of preferred mode choice for commuter purpose. The goodness of fit parameter ρ2 and goodness-of fit index adjusted by freedom ρ2 of the preferred mode choice model are 0.407 and 0.369 respectively, which implies that the forecast accuracy of the model is high. The VOT of the respondents in the survey is 29.9RMB/h and the results can provide a good reference for designing and optimizing of the commuter bus.

Does an Undertaking’s Reputation Affect its Market Power on the Relevant Market? Case Comment to the Judgment of the Supreme Court of 2 April 2009 – PPKS (Ref. No. III SK 30/08)

In a decision (RDG 46/2005) issued on 30 December 2005, the President of the Office of Competition and Consumer Protection (UOKiK) established an infringement of Article 8(2)(1) of the Act of 15 December 2000 on Competition and Consumer Protection by the state-owned Motor Transportation Enterprise (PPKS) in Slupsk2. According to this rule, an abuse of a dominant position may consist of a direct or indirect imposition of unfair prices, including predatory or glaringly low prices, delayed payment terms or other trading conditions. In the discussed case, the practice involved the indirect imposition of unfair travel fares by way of a ‘major fare reductions’ scheme as of November 2004 in order to eliminate a given Competitor. According to UOKiK, PPKS abused its dominating position as a commuter bus line operator with bookings based on one-off and monthly tickets. The relevant market was specified as the bus commuter route between the ‘S’ and ‘G’ municipalities.

Information technology super-charging Rwanda’s economy

A luxury commuter bus pulls up by the kerb to pick up passengers. A young woman quickly jumps in, retrieves a smart card from her wallet and swipes it against a machine next to the driver. A buzzer approves the swipe and the woman takes a seat by the window. Nothing unusual, something even routine in advanced economies. But this is tiny landlocked Rwanda, one of the world’s poorest countries, which was nearly brought to its knees by genocide in 1994.

Fungal flora of Nigerian currency notes in circulation in Benin City, Nigeria

A mycological survey of Nigerian currency (naira) notes in circulation in Benin City was undertaken to determine the fungal species present, so as to bring to light the health implications of their presence. A total of 84 naira notes comprising 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 naira denominations were obtained randomly from a bank, commuter bus, food canteen, and open market. Four-day old Potato Dextrose Agar cultures of diluted water diffusate of the currency notes were examined under the microscope and fungi were isolated and identified. The isolated fungi and their frequencies of isolation were A. flavus (90.5), A. fumigatus (42.9), A. terreus (57.1), A. flavipes (26.2) A. niger (59.5), Candida albicans (92.3), Rhizopus sp (2.7), Penicillium sp (4.0), Fusarium sp (12.8), and Saccharomyces cerevisae (16.1%). The frequencies of fungi isolated from the various denominations varied significantly at 0.05 probability. While the 50 naira denomination had the highest colony count (mean of means = 41 colonies/ml) the 500 naira had the lowest colony count (mean of means =8.3 colonies/ml). The high occurrence of fungi in the currency notes is of public health concern.

Is the bus transport contracting system in South Africa leading to trusting relationships between contracted parties? An analysis of funding issues and the impact on relations between government and operators

The 1996 South African White Paper on National Transport policy provided the guidelines for the restructuring of the commuter bus industry. The restructuring objectives were based on improving the competitiveness of and service levels within the industry through a competitive tendering regime, the selective implementation of negotiated contracts and the general transformation of the industry to also include improved transparency in the funding arrangements between government and operators. In order to set the context of the paper, a brief overview is provided of the progress made with policy implementation and the background to funding issues that are experienced in the bus transport sector. To gauge the impact of the funding issues on the relationship between government and operators, a survey of the largest contracted operators was undertaken to determine, amongst other, how these funding issues have potentially impacted on trusting relationships between contracted parties.

A rural hydrogen transportation test bed

Abstract The Missouri University Science and Technology (Missouri S&T), through a hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle evaluation participation agreement with the Ford Motor Company, is in the process of establishing a commuter bus service and hydrogen refueling at a station in rural Missouri near Ft. Leonard Wood (FLW). Initiated by a request from the U.S. Army Maneuver Support Center at FLW, Missouri S&T is leading the effort to launch the commuter service between FLW and the neighboring towns of Rolla and Lebanon, Missouri each of which are located approximately 40 km from the military base on Interstate-44 highway. The broad research, training, and education agenda for the rural hydrogen transportation test bed is to develop, demonstrate, evaluate, and promote safe hydrogen-based technologies in a real-world environment. With funds provided by the Defense Logistics Agency through the Air Force Research Laboratory, this hydrogen initiative will build and operate a hydrogen fueling facility that includes on-site generation of hydrogen by means of steam–methane reformation.

Comparisons of commuter's exposure to particulate matters while using different transportation modes

This study compared commuters' exposures to particulate matter (PM) while using motorcycles, cars, buses, and the mass rapid transit (MRT) on the same routes in Taipei, Taiwan. Motorcycle commuters who had the shortest travel time (28.4 ± 4.2 min) were exposed to the highest concentrations of PM 10 (112.8 ± 38.3 μg/m 3), PM 2.5 (67.5 ± 31.3 μg/m 3), and PM 1.0 (48.4 ± 24.7 μg/m 3) among four commuting modes. By contrast, car commuters were exposed to the lowest PM concentrations and had the second shortest travel time among them. Motorcycle commuters' high trip-averaged PM concentrations and bus commuters' long commuting time (43.1 ± 5.1 min) resulted in their high whole-trip PM exposures. Size fractions of PM were relatively consistent across PM exposures of the four commuting modes with fine particles (PM 2.5) contributing to 53–60% of PM 10 and submicron particle (PM 1) contributing to 39–43% of PM 10. Motorcycles idled at traffic lights and bus doors opened at stops increased commuters' PM exposures. Fixed-site monitoring data explained well the variation of whole-trip PM 10 exposure of car ( r 2 = 0.63) and MRT ( r 2 = 0.52) commuters, and of whole-trip PM 2.5 exposure of car ( r 2 = 0.76), MRT ( r 2 = 0.73) and motorcycle ( r 2 = 0.64) commuters in regression analyses. The coefficients (slopes) of regression between fixed-site monitoring data and PM 2.5 exposures were less than 1 for car and MRT commuters but greater than 1 for motorcycle commuters. In conclusion, proximity to traffic emissions contributes to a person's high PM exposure during his or her daily commute. This proximity occurs when people use motorcycles on roads and when bus/MRT commuters walk or wait along commuting routes. Fixed-site air monitoring data can under-estimate motorcycle commuters' PM 2.5 exposures but over-estimate car and MRT commuters' PM 2.5 exposures.

Relative exposure to fine particulate matter and VOCs between transport microenvironments in Dublin: Personal exposure and uptake

To compare the relative exposure to and uptake of air pollutants between modes of commuter transport, measurements of personal exposure to PM 2.5 and traffic-related VOCs were obtained over an 18-month period. In total, 468 samples were recorded comprising journeys equally divided between the four main modes of commuter transport in Dublin, Ireland: the private car, pedestrian, public bus and cyclist. Samples were recorded along two fixed routes approaching/exiting the city centre at fixed times of the day (morning and evening peak traffic flows, 08:00–09:00 and 17:00–18:00). Samples were measured using a high flow gravimetric personal sampler for PM 2.5 and a low flow vacuum operated bag sampler for VOCs. Sampling was always carried out simultaneously between two modes of transport to ensure a direct comparison regardless of meteorological and traffic conditions. Significant differences were found between the personal exposures recorded in the four modes investigated. The car commuter was found to have the highest exposure to VOCs, while the bus commuter was found to have the highest exposure to PM 2.5. The pedestrian was consistently found to have the lowest exposure. Significant differences were also found between the two fixed routes investigated. However, as there were differences in physiological states, exposure durations and exposure levels between the four modes of transport, it was deemed necessary to estimate the total uptake of pollutants by means of a numerical human respiratory tract model. The results showed the cyclist to have the highest deposition of PM 2.5 in the lungs followed by the bus, pedestrian and car. The car passenger had the highest absorption of VOCs followed by the cyclist, pedestrian and bus. Hence, the findings of the human respiratory tract model give a significantly different impression of relative uptake of pollutants to the relative exposure concentrations found initially.

Finite Mixture Noise Models for Mobile Digital Television Channel on Urban Terrestrial Broadcasting

Since 21st century, the test service for digital TV terrestrial broadcasting has been successively carried out in some Chinese big cities, and bus commuters can watch TV programs while traveling in the signal-covered regions. When the digital mobile TV coverage is planned, the level of radio noise in environments is of considerable concern to designers. In this paper the results of average noise power of a digital TV channel in a UHF band on public transportation courses are introduced. Not only the noise factors but also the K times variance deviation of the upper decile of noise factors under three typical communication environments has been obtained through the analysis of nonlinear regression of cumulative distribution functions on the test results. Through the trials of mobile reception of digital television, two coverage plans have been compared; The results show that the coverage effect for the model based on interference statistical distributions is higher than the one based on AWGN noise.

Commuter Exposures to VOCs and PM2.5 in Kao-Pin Area of Taiwan

P-590 Abstract: With a high density of vehicles, the potential health impact caused by air toxicants emitted from motor vehicles is one of the major concerns for commuters in Taiwan. A series of field studies were conducted in the Kao-Pin area of southern Taiwan in 2005 in which fine particle (PM2.5) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) personal exposure level measurements were taken for journeys in motorcycle, car, bus and train transport microenvironments. Measurements of vehicle occupants’ exposures to aromatic compounds [benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes (BTEX)], methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) and PM2.5 were carried out on five major commuting routes in this area. Air samples of VOCs were collected by multi-adsorbent tubes and analyzed by thermal desorption and GC/MS technique. Monitoring for PM2.5 were accomplished by using direct-reading instruments and sampling processes were recorded by video cameras. All the air samples were collected at morning (07:00–10:30) or afternoon (16:00–19:00) rush hours of weekdays in all transportation modes. During the sampling period, a total of 80 VOCs samples and 84 PM2.5 samples were collected. In some trips, air samples were measured simultaneously for four transportation modes on two major routes. The results indicate that MTBE and toluene were the most abundant VOCs observed while commuting in Kao-Pin metropolitan area, followed by xylenes, benzene and ethylbenzene. The highest exposure levels for VOCs were found for motorcycle riders. The average exposure concentration for motorcyclists to benzene and MTBE ranged from 19 to 459 μg/m3 and 11 to 792 μg/m3, respectively. The highest exposure levels for PM2.5 were found on diesel buses, while lowest levels were measured in the train cabins. For diesel bus commuters, the sources of PM2.5 exposures include the outdoor air on bus routes and reentry of engine emission. Average PM2.5 exposure levels for motorcycle riders ranged from 35 to 250 μg/m3 at different commuting routes. The average PM2.5 levels inside car cabin under ventilation mode were generally 30–60% of the measurements outside cabin. Based on the results of video image analyses, major influences on the levels of PM2.5 on roads and commuter's exposures included traffic conditions, diesel engine emissions and waiting times before traffic lights. The results of this study shows that strategies that encourage commuting by train should be supported and exposure control actions should be taken for motorcycle and bus commuters.

Fitting Distributions to Random Parameters

This research investigated the choice of distributions for the parameters of a mixed logit model, under the risk that the model appears statistically successful when its actual fit to the true behavior is poor. A subsampling technique is used to examine the aptitude of several model specifications to approximate the range of preferences of bus commuters in York, England. Difficulties in replicating the distribution of the willingness to pay are discussed. Various issues are raised, such as the existence of negative willingness to pay, constraining distributions by either estimation or imposition, and the potential of subsampling experiments.

Fitting Distributions to Random Parameters

This research investigated the choice of distributions for the parameters of a mixed logit model, under the risk that the model appears statistically successful when its actual fit to the true behavior is poor. A subsampling technique is used to examine the aptitude of several model specifications to approximate the range of preferences of bus commuters in York, England. Difficulties in replicating the distribution of the willingness to pay are discussed. Various issues are raised, such as the existence of negative willingness to pay, constraining distributions by either estimation or imposition, and the potential of subsampling experiments.

Get Off the Bus: Sound Strategy for Injury Prevention During a Tornado?

On 08 May 2003, a tornado categorized as an F-3 on the Fujita Tornado Scale (the "F Scale") struck an Oklahoma City, Oklahoma commuter bus carrying 24 passengers. The driver evacuated several passengers before the tornado struck. The tornado rolled the bus, and pelted it with debris. A case-series investigation of tornado-related injuries was conducted among passengers who were evacuated to a ditch and those who remained on the bus when the tornado struck. Nineteen of 24 passengers sought care for injuries at hospital emergency departments (injury rate = 79.2%). While a greater number of passengers who were outside the bus when the tornado struck (11) sought care for injuries than did those who remained on the bus (8); passengers outside of the bus suffered fewer injuries than did those who remained on the bus (median number of injuries 3 versus 4), and their injuries were less severe (median injury severity score (ISS) 1 versus 4). For persons caught in motor vehicles during tornado events, this study supports currently accepted recommendations to immediately evacuate and lie in a low-lying area away from motor vehicles if other shelter is unavailable. However, generalizing the experience of bus passengers to automobile drivers might be inappropriate because buses lack the safety features that might protect automobile drivers from tornado-related injuries.

Influence of in-tunnel environment to in-bus air quality and thermal condition in Hong Kong

In this study, the potential exposure of bus commuters to significant air parameters (CO 2, CO and RSP) and thermal environment (air temperature and relative humidity) when buses traveled through tunnels in Hong Kong was investigated. It was found that air-conditioned buses provided a better commuting environment than non-air-conditioned buses. The blate increasing trend was found on air-conditioned buses as the in-bus air parameters concentration levels rose slowly throughout the traveling process. In contrast, the in-bus environment varied rapidly on non-air-conditioned buses as it depended on the out-bus environment. The measured in-bus CO concentration was 2.9 ppm on air-conditioned buses, while it was 4.6 ppm (even reaching the highest level at 12.0 ppm) on non-air-conditioned buses. Considering the in-bus thermal environment, air-conditioned buses provided thermally comfortable cabins (about 24 °C and 59% of relative humidity). However, on non-air-conditioned buses, the thermal environment varied with the out-bus environment. The mean in-bus air temperature was about 34 °C and 66% of relative humidity, and the in-bus air temperature varied between 29 and 38 °C. Also, the lower-deck to upper-deck air parameters concentration ratios indicated that the vertical dispersion of air pollutants in tunnels influenced non-air-conditioned buses as higher air parameters concentration levels were obtained on the lower-deck cabins.

Commuters' concern for the environment and knowledge of the effects of vehicle emissions

Attitudes towards the environment and knowledge of the polluting effects of vehicle emissions were surveyed in 566 train and bus commuters, private motor vehicle commuters and smoky vehicle commuters. Environmental concern was found to significantly correlate with level of contribution to an environmental organisation but not with levels of environmental attitudes or emissions knowledge. Smoky vehicle drivers did not have lower levels of knowledge of emissions or lower levels of environmental concern compared to other private motor vehicle commuters. Train commuters showed no greater concern for the environment than car commuters.