Burmese Python Research Articles

Everglades virus: an underrecognized disease-causing subtype of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus endemic to Florida, USA.

Everglades virus (EVEV) is subtype II of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) complex (Togaviridae: Alphavirus), endemic to Florida, USA. EVEV belongs to a clade that includes both enzootic and epizootic/epidemic VEEV subtypes. Like other enzootic VEEV subtypes, muroid rodents are important vertebrate hosts for EVEV and certain mosquitoes are important vectors. The hispid cotton rat Sigmodon hispidus and cotton mouse Peromyscus gossypinus are important EVEV hosts, based on natural infection (virus isolation and high seropositivity), host competence (experimental infections), and frequency of contact with the vector. The mosquito Culex (Melanoconion) cecedei is the only confirmed vector of EVEV based upon high natural infection rates, efficient vector competence, and frequent feeding upon muroid rodents. Human disease attributed to EVEV is considered rare. However, cases of meningitis and encephalitis are recorded from multiple sites, separated by 250 km or more. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that EVEV is evolving, possibly due to changes in the mammal community. Mutations in the EVEV genome are of concern, given that epidemic strains of VEEV (subtypes IAB and IC) are derived from enzootic subtype ID, the closest genetic relative of EVEV. Should epizootic mutations arise in EVEV, the abundance of Aedes taeniorhynchus and other epizootic VEEV vectors in southern Florida provides a conducive environment for widespread transmission. Other factors that will likely influence the distribution and frequency of EVEV transmission include the establishment of Culex panocossa in Florida, Everglades restoration, mammal community decline due to the Burmese python, land use alteration by humans, and climate change.

Survey optimization for invasive Burmese pythons informed by camera traps

AbstractThe Burmese python (Python bivittatus) is an invasive predator responsible for broad mammal declines in South Florida, United States. Despite their large size, pythons remain cryptic and require multifaceted approaches for detection. We evaluated a novel technique by deploying camera traps at known locations of radiotagged pythons in the Florida Keys. We estimated daily detection probabilities of snakes and plotted diel activity patterns. Our results suggest camera traps can effectively survey pythons but seasonality and camera trigger mechanisms affect utility. Pythons were most detectable with time‐lapse camera traps and more detectable in winter. The diel activity pattern of pythons peaked midday through early afternoon, indicating an optimal survey time for other search methods. Artificial intelligence can alleviate photo volume, so we recommend a combination of motion detection and time‐lapse with shorter time (1 min) intervals for python‐specific surveys and where camera traps are deployed to monitor mammals to improve passive python detection.

Telescoping prey selection in invasive Burmese pythons spells trouble for endangered rodents

The allometric scaling of predators and their prey is well established within snakes (i.e., gape-width limits maximum prey sizes). However, while some species exhibit ontogenetic shifts to larger prey as they grow, others exhibit telescoping prey selection and continue to consume small prey in addition to larger prey. The Burmese python (Python bivittatus) is a large dietary generalist constrictor native to Southeast Asia that is established in South Florida (USA). As part of survey efforts at the southern invasion front in the Florida Keys, we used camera traps to document predation on endangered Key Largo cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus allapaticola) by an adult female Burmese python. These images represent the first photo documentation of predation attempts upon a federally endangered species in the python's invasive range, but we note three additional instances of Key Largo cotton mice in the gut contents of euthanized pythons from Key Largo. These observations suggest Burmese pythons exhibit telescoping prey selection behavior where even small rodents (<30 g) are viable prey for adult snakes. However, based on the number of documented strikes with failed predation events and low frequency of occurrence in gut contents, we suspect mice may be less common prey items for adult (i.e., >185 cm SVL) pythons relative to cotton mouse abundance in the environment. However, we also documented endangered Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli) and Key Largo cotton mice collecting and consuming the shed skins of pythons, which suggests the two rodent species remain naïve to the threat of these invasive predators. Further understanding of the impact of Burmese pythons on native prey communities can help inform efforts to minimize biodiversity loss along their invasion fronts.

Herpetofauna trade via e-commerce in Indonesia

Sales of wildlife on a commercial scale using various online platform has been occurring for some time however, research related to online wildlife trade in Indonesia, especially herpetofauna, is still limited. This study aims to examine the herpetofauna trade on a popular e-commerce platforms in Indonesia, namely: Tokopedia, Shopee, Lazada, and Bukalapak, using a web scraping application data retrieval method. Web scraping is a technique to get information from the website automatically without having to copy it manually. The results recorded 117 species of the herpetofauna from 38 families, comprising 106 species of reptiles (90.6%) and 11 species of amphibians (9.4%). Eublepharis macularius (leopard gecko) was the most offered species in each e-commerce, whereas Trachemys scripta (red-eared slider) was the most sold species. Six species were included under the protected animals list according to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry No. 106 from 2018, which were Crocodylus porosus (saltwater crocodile), Morelia viridis (green tree python), Python bivittatus (Burmese python), Orlitia borneensis (Malaysian giant turtle), Varanus nebulosus (clouded monitor) and Varanus panoptes (argus monitor). Based on the province, the highest trade occurs in West Java, followed by Jakarta. The total economic value during the period of 2017 to 2022 is IDR 3,355,750,470.

A nosocomial Pseudomonas aeruginosa ST3495 isolated from a wild Burmese python (Python bivittatus) with suppurative pneumonia and bacteremia in Hainan, China.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common infectious agent associated with respiratory diseases in boas and pythons, however, the histopathology, resistance and virulence are yet described for this species. In this study, we investigated a dying Burmese python rescued from tropical rainforest in Hainan. Clinical signs were open-mouthed breathing, abnormal shedding and anorexia. Abundant yellow mucopurulent secretions were observed in highly ectatic segmental bronchi by postmortem. Histopathological lesions included systemic pneumonia, enteritis,nephritis and carditis. P. aeruginosa was the only species isolated from heart blood, kidney, trachea and lung. The phenotype analysis demonstrated that the isolates had strong biofilm, and were sensitive to amikacin, spectinomycin, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin and polymyxin B, moreover, the LD50 of the most virulent isolate was 2.22×105 cfu/mL in a zebrafish model. Molecular epidemiological analysis revealed that the isolates belonged to sequence type 3495, the common gene patterns were toxA + exoSYT + phzIM + plcHN in virulence and catB + blaTEM + ant (3'')-I+ tetA in resistance. This study highlights that P. aeruginosa should be worth more attention in wildlife conservation and raise the public awareness for the cross infection and cross spread between animals and human.

Compensatory mortality explains rodent resilience to an invasive predator

Abstract Invasive Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) in the Everglades of Florida, United States, have drastically reduced populations of mammals, yet populations of some rodents appear unaffected by the invasion. To understand this pattern, we radio-tagged cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) in areas of high and low python occurrence densities (hereafter occurrence) and quantified the effects of python occurrence, seasonality, and sex on their survival and cause-specific mortality. Cotton rat survival was not influenced by difference in python occurrence (hazard ratio = 1.32, 95% CI = 0.77–2.26, P = 0.30). However, cotton rats were at greater risk from mortalities caused by mammals in areas of low python occurrence. In areas with elevated python occurrence, we attributed most cotton rat mortalities to birds of prey (48.6%) and reptiles (non-python = 24.3%, python = 16.2%). Where python occurrence was relatively low, we attributed cotton rat mortalities to native reptilian (28.6%), avian (35.7%), and mammalian predators (35.7%) with no python-related deaths. In total, pythons were responsible for 11.8% of all cotton rat mortalities. Finding no difference in the survival of cotton rats, despite differences in the causative agents of mortality, suggests that predation pressure from an invasive predator was compensatory for cotton rat population dynamics. This type of compensatory mortality is common for small mammals and helps explain why mammal communities in python-invaded portions of the Greater Everglades Ecosystem are increasingly dominated by cotton rats and other rodents.

Westward range extension of Burmese Python Python bivittatus in and around the Ganga Basin, India: a response to changing climatic factors

The range extension of animals is influenced by various factors, particularly environmental variables and ecological requirements. In this study, we have attempted to quantify the potential current distribution range of the Burmese Python Python bivittatus in and around the Ganga Basin. We collected the Burmese Python sightings between 2007 and 2022 from various direct and indirect sources and recorded 38 individuals, including eight females and five males; the rest were not examined for their sex. Out of these, 12 individuals were rescued from human habitations. Most python sightings were observed in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh (n = 12 each), followed by Bihar (n = 6). The expanded minimum convex polygon (MCP) range was calculated as 60,534.2 km2. In addition, we quantified the potential current distribution status of this species using 19 bioclimatic variables with the help of MaxEnt software and the SDM toolbox in Arc GIS. The suitable area for the python distribution was calculated as 1,03,547 km2. We found that the following variables influenced the python distribution in the range extended landscape: Annual Mean Temperature (20.9 %), Precipitation of Wettest Quarter (6.4 %), Precipitation of Driest Quarter (30.1 %), Precipitation of Warmest Quarter (0.3%), Isothermality (0.1%), Temperature Annual Range (18.7 %), Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter (11.4 %), Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter (2.2 %), Land use/land cover (3.3 %), and Elevation (6.6 %). These results will support the field managers in rescuing individuals from conflict areas and rehabilitating them based on the appropriate geographical region.

Cuban Treefrog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) in Florida

Florida is the global epicenter for introduced nonnative reptiles and amphibians. These include well-known species such as Burmese pythons and green iguanas as well as dozens of other species of snakes, lizards, and frogs. There are four species of nonnative frogs currently established in Florida. The purpose of this publication, a UF/IFAS numbered Organism ID., is to summarize the status, biology, and impacts of one of those frogs, the Cuban treefrog. The publication also presents strategies to manage Cuban treefrogs to help alleviate human conflicts and benefit native species. The main target audience is homeowners who suspect they have Cuban treefrogs on their property and/or need technical assistance dealing with these often-problematic frogs. Environmental educators, natural resource managers, and professional scientists will also find the information herein of interest.

Prehistoric snake bones from Zuojiang River Basin, Guangxi, China

ABSTRACT Based on the morphological studies on the snake bones discovered in the Neolithic sites from the Zuojiang River Basin, Chongzuo, Guangxi, China, three extant snake species attributed to three different genera and three families have been identified: Elaphe moellendorffi (Boettger, 1886), Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836), and Python bivittatus Kuhl, 1820. Multiple linear regression of four vertebral measurements against the body size for extant specimens using an allometric model indicates a minimum snout-vent length of 3 882.5 mm, total body length of 4 578.7 mm for the largest vertebra of the Neolithic P. bivittatus found in this region. The result indicates a similar herpetofauna between the Neolithic period and current southwest Guangxi, in addition to a potential snake hunting lifestyles of pre-historical humans from the Zuojiang River basin.

Burmese pythons in Florida: A synthesis of biology, impacts, and management tools

Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus) are native to southeastern Asia, however, there is an established invasive population inhabiting much of southern Florida throughout the Greater Everglades Ecosystem. Pythons have severely impacted native species and ecosystems in Florida and represent one of the most intractable invasive-species management issues across the globe. The difficulty stems from a unique combination of inaccessible habitat and the cryptic and resilient nature of pythons that thrive in the subtropical environment of southern Florida, rendering them extremely challenging to detect. Here we provide a comprehensive review and synthesis of the science relevant to managing invasive Burmese pythons. We describe existing control tools and review challenges to productive research, identifying key knowledge gaps that would improve future research and decision making for python control.

'If I See a Burmese Python, I'm Gonna Kill That Shit': How Changing the Object of the Law Affects Support for Legal Regulation

'If I See a Burmese Python, I'm Gonna Kill That Shit': How Changing the Object of the Law Affects Support for Legal Regulation

Divergent Serpentoviruses in Free-Ranging Invasive Pythons and Native Colubrids in Southern Florida, United States.

Burmese python (Python bivittatus) is an invasive snake that has significantly affected ecosystems in southern Florida, United States. Aside from direct predation and competition, invasive species can also introduce nonnative pathogens that can adversely affect native species. The subfamily Serpentovirinae (order Nidovirales) is composed of positive-sense RNA viruses primarily found in reptiles. Some serpentoviruses, such as shingleback nidovirus, are associated with mortalities in wild populations, while others, including ball python nidovirus and green tree python nidovirus can be a major cause of disease and mortality in captive animals. To determine if serpentoviruses were present in invasive Burmese pythons in southern Florida, oral swabs were collected from both free-ranging and long-term captive snakes. Swabs were screened for the presence of serpentovirus by reverse transcription PCR and sequenced. A total serpentovirus prevalence of 27.8% was detected in 318 python samples. Of the initial swabs from 172 free-ranging pythons, 42 (24.4%) were positive for multiple divergent viral sequences comprising four clades across the sampling range. Both sex and snout-vent length were statistically significant factors in virus prevalence, with larger male snakes having the highest prevalence. Sampling location was statistically significant in circulating virus sequence. Mild clinical signs and lesions consistent with serpentovirus infection were observed in a subset of sampled pythons. Testing of native snakes (n = 219, 18 species) in part of the python range found no evidence of python virus spillover; however, five individual native snakes (2.3%) representing three species were PCR positive for unique, divergent serpentoviruses. Calculated pairwise uncorrected distance analysis indicated the newly discovered virus sequences likely represent three novel genera in the subfamily Serpentovirinae. This study is the first to characterize serpentovirus in wild free-ranging pythons or in any free-ranging North America reptile. Though the risk these viruses pose to the invasive and native species is unknown, the potential for spillover to native herpetofauna warrants further investigation.

Size distribution and reproductive phenology of the invasive Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida, USA

The design of successful invasive species control programs is often hindered by the absence of basic demographic data on the targeted population. Establishment of invasive Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus) in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida USA has led to local precipitous declines (&amp;gt; 90%) of mesomammal populations and is also a major threat to native populations of reptiles and birds. Efforts to control this species are ongoing but are hampered by the lack of access to and information on the expected biological patterns of pythons in southern Florida. We present data from more than 4,000 wild Burmese pythons that were removed in southern Florida over 26 years (1995–2021), the most robust dataset representing this invasive population to date. We used these data to characterize Burmese python size distribution, size at maturity, clutch size, and seasonal demographic and reproductive trends. We broadened the previously described size ranges by sex and, based on our newly defined size-stage classes, showed that males are smaller than females at sexual maturity, confirmed a positive correlation between maternal body size and potential clutch size, and developed predictive equations to facilitate demographic predictions. We also refined the annual breeding season (approx.100 days December into March), oviposition timing (May), and hatchling emergence and dispersal period (July through October) using correlations of capture morphometrics with observations of seasonal gonadal recrudescence (resurgence) and regression. Determination of reproductive output and timing can inform population models and help managers arrest population growth by targeting key aspects of python life history. These results define characteristics of the species in Florida and provide an enhanced understanding of the ecology and reproductive biology of Burmese pythons in their invasive Everglades range.

Utility of the burmese Python as a model for studying plasticity of extreme physiological systems.

Non-traditional animal models present an opportunity to discover novel biology that has evolved to allow such animals to survive in extreme environments. One striking example is the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus), which exhibits extreme physiological adaptation in various metabolic organs after consuming a large meal following long periods of fasting. The response to such a large meal in pythons involves a dramatic surge in metabolic rate, lipid overload in plasma, and massive but reversible organ growth through the course of digestion. Multiple studies have reported the physiological responses in post-prandial pythons, while the specific molecular control of these processes is less well-studied. Investigating the mechanisms that coordinate organ growth and adaptive responses offers the opportunity to gain novel insight that may be able to treat various pathologies in humans. Here, we summarize past research on the post-prandial physiological changes in the Burmese python with a focus on the gastrointestinal tract, heart, and liver. Specifically, we address our recent molecular discoveries in the post-prandial python liver which demonstrate transient adaptations that may reveal new therapeutic targets. Lastly, we explore new biology of the aquaporin 7 gene that is potently upregulated in mammalian cardiac myocytes by circulating factors in post-prandial python plasma.

Arsenicum album as a treatment for pneumonia in snakes: serial cases

&#x0D; Abstract&#x0D; Introduction: two Python bivittatus were received at Project Selva Viva, zoo in Taubaté, Brazil, both presented respiratory noises and oro-nasal discharge. In view of the fact, a thoracic ultrasonographic examination was performed for evaluation on February 25, 2022, which diagnosed the presence of multiple vertical hyperechoic artefacts emerging from the pleural line, coalescing in some of the fields evaluated, and the presence of a hypoechoic structure located in the subpleural region. Another serpent, a species of Boa constrictor, arrived in same zoo, unhistorical individual, collected from an apprehension, showed a low body score and during a thoracic ultrasonographic evaluation, carried out on April 1, 2022, was also found to have B waves emerging from the line pleural. Methodology: Authorized story, by responsible of zoo. In all the patients, homeopathic therapy was initiated with 2 globules of Arsenicum album 30 cH/BID, after diagnosis of the respiratory condition by ultrasonographic examination, the medication was chosen through the similarity with the symptoms. Accompaniment with ultrassoms of Python bivittatus foram carried out weekly for accompaniment of the respiratory picture. Results: On March 04, it was observed that both coils showed a reduction in respiratory noise and were more active. Ars 30 cH was maintained BID. On March 25, both presented significant improvement in ultrasound, which made visible only lines A, compatible with a healthy lung, in both individuals and the treatment was suspended. The treatment of the Boa constrictor was started on April 1. On April 8, ultrasonographic examination was performed, which only observed lines A, indicating improvement of the picture. Conclusion: Given these results, it is considered that the homeopathic treatment is an option to be considered not treating the respiratory condition in snakes, however, there is variation in the duration of the therapy through the stage and chronicity of the disease.

Scaling Relationships of Maximal Gape in Two Species of Large Invasive Snakes, Brown Treesnakes and Burmese Pythons, and Implications for Maximal Prey Size.

SynopsisSnakes are a phylogenetically diverse (> 3500 species) clade of gape-limited predators that consume diverse prey and have considerable ontogenetic and interspecific variation in size, but empirical data on maximal gape are very limited. To test how overall size predicts gape, we quantified the scaling relationships between maximal gape, overall size, and several cranial dimensions for a wide range of sizes (mass 8–64,100 g) for two large, invasive snake species: Burmese pythons (Python molorus bivittatus) and brown treesnakes (Boiga irregularis). Although skull size scaled with negative allometry relative to overall size, isometry and positive allometry commonly occurred for other measurements. For similar snout-vent lengths (SVL), the maximal gape areas of Burmese pythons were approximately 4–6 times greater than those of brown treesnakes, mainly as a result of having a significantly larger relative contribution to gape by the intermandibular soft tissues (43% vs. 17%). In both snake species and for all types of prey, the scaling relationships predicted that relative prey mass (RPM) at maximal gape decreased precipitously with increased overall snake size. For a given SVL or mass, the predicted maximal values of RPM of the Burmese pythons exceeded those of brown treesnakes for all prey types, and predicted values of RPM were usually least for chickens, greatest for limbed reptiles and intermediate for mammals. The pythons we studied are noteworthy for having large overall size and gape that is large even after correcting for overall size, both of which could facilitate some large individuals (SVL = 5 m) exploiting very large vertebrate prey (e.g., deer > 50 kg). Although brown treesnakes had longer quadrate bones, Burmese pythons had larger absolute and larger relative gape as a combined result of larger overall size, larger relative head size, and most importantly, greater stretch of the soft tissues.

Management of invasive snakes in coastal environments: A baseline assessment of the Burmese python invasion in the Florida Everglades

The Florida Everglades is a unique and fragile coastal wetland ecosystem that is undergoing a decades-long, large-scale ecological restoration. This freshwater ecosystem in southern Florida has been stressed by diminishment of freshwater flow and water diversion due to agricultural activities and urbanization. The health of this vast ecosystem is also threatened by the presence of a large number of invasive species, including the Burmese python. These large constrictors were introduced to South Florida through the pet trade; first sightings in Everglades National Park occurred in the 1980s. Pythons are naturally camouflaged in the Everglades, which turns out to be an excellent environment for propagation of these huge predators. This top predator has severely disrupted the food web, consuming mammals, birds and even other reptiles. In this paper, the current population control efforts implemented by various management agencies are assessed. While more paid professional hunters should be retained to join the search and removal efforts, innovative control measures are necessary.

Egg retention in wild-caught [i]Python bivittatus[/i] in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida, USA

Retention of eggs in oviducts beyond the normal oviposition period is a common problem for captive reptiles, but the occurrence of egg retention in wild populations is largely unknown. The Burmese python (Python [molurus] bivittatus; Kühl 1820) is an oviparous snake native to south-eastern Asia that is now established in southern Florida. From 2011–2019, invasive Burmese pythons were opportunistically removed from Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve, humanely euthanised, and necropsied to determine reproductive condition. A total of 258 females of reproductive size were found to exhibit various stages of oviposition which generally aligned with purported annual reproductive timing. However, we encountered five pythons during the post-ovulatory period (Aug–Feb) showing signs of recent oviposition with retained eggs. Most of these cases comprised a small number of retained eggs, likely representing some portion of the total clutch. Because this condition is nearly absent in wild animal literature, our observations suggest retained eggs in wild snakes may be more common than previously assumed, possibly slowing or otherwise impacting population growth. However, we recognise that for an invasive species like the Burmese python in Florida, the egg retention rate may be higher in the non-native range compared to the native range due to maladaptation to novel habitats or environmental conditions. Additional research is needed to determine the exact causes of egg retention and investigate the implications for population dynamics on this and other snake species. Keywords: invasive species, dystocia, snakes, Burmese, reproduction

TEMUAN KLINIS DAN IDENTIFIKASI BAKTERI PADA DELAPAN ULAR SANCA DENGAN GANGGUAN RESPIRASI DI BALI

The study was aimed to identify bacteria associated with upper respiratory disorders in pythons. Epiglottis-tracheal swabs were collected aseptically from eight pythons (Malayopython reticulatus, Python bivittatus, and Python regius) with respiratory disorders. Common clinical signs were presented with frothy nasal discharge, nasal discharge, wheezing, mild coughing, crackle sound and star-gazing. Samples were cultured and sub-cultured on Blood Agar (BA) and MacConkey Agar (MCA). Colonies were identified by performing Gram staining, standard biochemical and phenotypic tests procedures. One colony was identified using API 20NE kit. Of all seven different colonies that were previously isolated, Neisseria sp., Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus sp., Klebsiella sp., and Burkholderia cepacia were identified. We suggest that bacterial infections among captive pythons could be closely related to the immune system because of the commensal flora becoming pathogenic.

Two Invasive Reptile Species Cohabitate in an Active Nest of the Endangered Key Largo Woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli)

Florida is renowned for its non-native reptile communities, with 2 such pervasive nonnative species including the apex predator Python bivittatus (Burmese Python) and the herbivorous Iguana iguana (Green Iguana) that showcase the spectrum of their ecological impacts. Both species have recently expanded into the Florida Keys. We used a camera trap to survey a radio-tagged Burmese Python and documented both non-native reptiles cohabitating in the active, natural stick-nest of an endangered rodent, Neotoma floridana smalli (Key Largo Woodrat), in Dagny Johnson Botanical State Park, Key Largo, FL. An additional nest visitor included Peromyscus gossypinus allapaticola (Key Largo Cotton Mouse), another endangered rodent and potential prey for the python. Camera placement allowed us to detect both rodents on the exterior of the stick-nest. The presence of the Key Largo Woodrat and Key Largo Cotton Mouse at the nest warrant continued monitoring of the 2 reptile species and their interactions with the endangered small mammals as their presence becomes more common in the Florida Keys.