Burial Behavior Research Articles

Long-Term Corrosion of 2,000-Year-Old Ancient Iron Sword

ABSTRACTAn ancient iron sword (ca 2,000 year old) excavated from Ohtake-nishi archaeological site in Osaka Prefecture, is one of the oldest cast iron swords in Japan. Because of a good state of preservation, such as the sharply-defined “Shinogi” (the longitudinal ridge) on the surface, we studied relationship between the burial environment and corrosion behavior. As environmental conditions, we investigated groundwater chemistry and corrosion rate with iron probe monitor, etc. Regarding corrosion state, we analyzed corrosion depths with an X-ray computed tomography and corrosion products with a portable X-ray diffractometer equipped with X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. As results, we found that the redox potential and dissolved oxygen level as environmental conditions were very low, and that the corrosion rate (7.5×10-4 mm/y) evaluated from measured corrosion depths was smaller than the probe corrosion rate (3.2–5.2×10-2 mm/y) by two orders of magnitude. The results suggested that the corrosion layer of siderite formed on the iron sword surface inhibited corrosion reaction.

Burial behaviour by dealates of the termite Pseudacanthotermes spiniger (Termitidae, Macrotermitinae) induced by chemical signals from termite corpses

In order to maintain healthy colonies, termite workers dispose of the cadavers of dead nest mates by cannibalism, burial, or necrophoresis. However, when multiple reproductives found a new colony by pleometrosis, there are no worker castes at the early stages of the foundation to eliminate or isolate the corpses. In this study, we showed that in young pleometrotic colonies, reproductives of Pseudacanthotermes spiniger had the ability to perform this task. Because of the claustral conditions, and the potential inability of the dealates to feed on their own, their behaviour was restricted to the burial of the cadaver within the initial chamber. This burial behaviour, previously not reported in the reproductive caste of termites, appeared to be induced by chemical signals released by the corpses during decomposition, among which various fatty acids, indole and phenol were the most active. The burial finally resulted in the physical isolation of corpses, thus reducing the chances for opportunistic pathogens to spread among the rest of the individuals.

LEVANT BÖLGESİNDE TEKLİ, ÇOKLU VE TOPLU (?) MEZARLARIN VARLIĞI İLE İLGİLİ EN ESKİ BULGULAR

The Levant provides the earliest evidence in Eurasia for funerary practises illustrated by intentional burials dated to the Middle Palaeolithic Period. Such burial behaviour was shared by distinct human groups that have alter­nated use of the Mediterranean Levant between 130.000 and 50.000years BP and were associated with distinct Mousterian assemblages. Within a sample of 6 sites (Skhul, Tabun, Kebara, Amud, Qafzeh and Dederiyeh), two of them in northern Israel (Qafzeh and Skhul) have to be distinguished by a higher number of burials and evidence of other symbolic activities. The Mousterian toolmakers in both sites are viewed as essentially early mod­em human in skeletal anatomy.

Exclusion of forensically important flies due to burying behavior by the red imported fire ant ( Solenopsis invicta) in southeast Texas

On March 3, 2009, the remains of an adult male were partially buried at the Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science (STAFS) Facility at the Center for Biological Field Studies (CBFS), Sam Houston State University, Texas. The individual was buried except for a small portion of the left abdominal region. A postmortem incised wound was created in the exposed area with the intention of attracting carrion flies. Worker ants of a colony of Solenopsis invicta Buren 1972 (red imported fire ant) filled in the wound with soil, thereby monopolizing the exposed area of the corpse and excluding expected carrion insects from the wound. During the bloating phase, approximately nine days after burial, normal decomposition processes of the gut created a sufficient disruption of the ants, such that flies oviposited and larvae were able to colonize the corpse. Estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI) based on the minimum period of fly activity would be severely skewed should the remains be discovered at this point and growth rate of Diptera larvae be used as the primary determinant for the PMI. While S. invicta is an expected member of a carrion ecosystem in southeastern Texas, and is known to distort the PMI estimation through larval and egg removal, the complete exclusion of flies from the wound by the burial behavior of S. invicta was an unexpected and until now an unpublished occurrence.

Late/Terminal Archaic Mortuary Practices in the Northeastern United States

Late/Terminal Archaic (4000-2500 B.P.) mortuary practices are poorly understood in the Northeastern United States. This current study is designed to evaluate selected mortuary sites in terms of feature categories, grave good diversity, burial types, and associated non-human faunal and botanical remains. The Late/Terminal Archaic was a period of rapid climatic change which coincided with dramatic population increases, resource intensification, settlement system shifts, and highly ritualized burial ceremonialism. Current data indicate that Late Archaic populations throughout much of the Northeast exhibited a complex series of seasonal movements, based upon seasonal availability of resources and highly ritualized cremation burial behavior. Late Archaic groups coalesced in riverine zones in the fall season, where economic activities oriented toward nut harvesting, mammal hunting, and possibly anadromous fishing, coincided with increasingly formal and complex cremation burial ritual; settlement systems during this period broadly correspond to collectors. With the completion of the autumn food harvesting and ritual cycle, groups dispersed into upland zones in the winter months to hunt mammals and coastal zones in the spring and summer to procure aquatic-related resources. Regional climatic changes toward the end of the Late (Terminal) Archaic and the early portion of the Early Woodland (3200-2500 B.P.) may have necessitated higher group mobility more typical of foragers and corresponding changes in cremation burial ritual.

Potencial de análise e interpretação das deposições mortuárias em arqueologia: perspectivas forenses

O estudo das terminologias e classificações empregadas por arqueólogos para descrever e interpretar os sepultamentos humanos como resultantes de comportamentos de populações extintas frente ao fenômeno da morte possibilita a construção de procedimentos de uma disciplina relativamente nova: a arqueologia forense. Contribuições da tafonomia, da medicina legal (tanatologia), da criminalística, entre outras ciências usadas em meio forense, são importantes para dimensionar e potencializar uma pesquisa que inclua intervenções arqueológicas invasivas. Assim, desde que os métodos e técnicas tradicionais da arqueologia sejam sistematicamente adaptados aos trabalhos forenses, a observação controlada dos traços deixados pelo processo da decomposição cadavérica em sítios com presença de restos humanos é imprescindível.

A review of postfeeding larval dispersal in blowflies: implications for forensic entomology

Immature and adult stages of blowflies are one of the primary invertebrate consumers of decomposing animal organic matter. When the food supply is consumed or when the larvae complete their development and migrate prior to the total removal of the larval substrate, they disperse to find adequate places for pupation, a process known as postfeeding larval dispersal. Several important ecological and physiological aspects of this process were studied since the work by Green (Ann Appl Biol 38:475, 1951) 50 years ago. An understanding of postfeeding larval dispersal can be useful for determining the postmortem interval (PMI) of human cadavers in legal medicine, particularly because this interval may be underestimated if older dispersing larvae or those that disperse longer, faster, and deeper are not taken into account. In this article, we review the process of postfeeding larval dispersal and its implications for legal medicine, in particular showing that aspects such as burial behavior and competition among species of blowflies can influence this process and consequently, the estimation of PMI.

Influence of photoperiod on body weight and depth of burrowing in larvae of Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) (Diptera, Calliphoridae) and implications for forensic entomology

Blowflies use discrete, ephemeral breeding sites for larval nutrition. After exhaustion of the food supply, the larvae disperse in search of sites to pupate or to seek other sources of food in a process known as post-feeding larval dispersal. In this study, some of the most important aspects of this process were investigated in larvae of the blowflies Chrysomya megacephala exposed to a variety of light: dark (LD) cycles (0:0 h, 12:12 h and 24:0 h) and incubated in tubes covered with vermiculite. For each pupa, the body weight and depth of burrowing were determined. Statistical tests were used to examine the relationship of depth of burrowing and body weight to photoperiod at which burrowing occurred. The study of burial behavior in post-feeding larval dispersing can be useful for estimating the postmortem interval (PMI) of human corpses in forensic medicine.

Late Archaic Settlement Patterns of the Inner Coastal Plain of New Jersey

Late Archaic (4000-1000 B.C.) settlement patterns in the State of New Jersey are poorly understood in comparison with other parts of the Northeastern United States. This study is designed to evaluate current settlement pattern data, using logistical models of land use, against available archaeological data. Current data indicate that Late Archaic populations exhibited a complex series of seasonal movements, based upon seasonal availability of resources and highly ritualized cremation burial behavior. Late Archaic groups coalesced in riverine zones of the Inner Coastal Plain in the fall, as economic activities oriented toward nut harvesting, mammal hunting, and fishing, coincided with increasingly formal and complex cremation burial ritual; settlement systems at this time broadly correspond to collectors. With the completion of the fall season food harvesting and ritual cycle, mobile groups most resembling foragers dispersed into upland zones in the winter months to hunt mammals and coastal zones in the spring and summer to procure aquatic-related resources. Regional climatic changes toward the end of the Late (Terminal) Archaic and the early portion of the Early Woodland (1200-500 B.C.) may have necessitated higher group mobility more typical of foragers and corresponding changes in cremation burial ritual.

Revision of Sceliages Westwood, a millipede-eating genus of southern African dung beetles (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae)

The genus Sceliages Westwood (Scarabaeinae : Scarabaeini) from southern Africa is revised. Seven species are recognised: Sc. granulatus, sp. nov. (Botswana, South Africa), Sc. augias Gillet (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia), Sc. adamastor (Le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau & Serville) (South Africa), Sc. brittoni zur Strassen (South Africa), Sc. difficilis zur Strassen (South Africa, Zimbabwe), Sc. gagates Shipp (South Africa, Moçambique) and Sc. hippias Westwood (South Africa). The new species is described and the others are redescribed. Neotypes are assigned to Sc. adamastor and Sc. gagates. A key to the species is provided and male genitalia and other diagnostic characters are illustrated. A phylogenetic analysis of the genus is presented. Distribution maps of all species are provided. Mature larvae of Sc. hippias are described, the first for the genus. They can be distinguished from other Scarabaeinae larvae by a markedly reduced torma on the epipharynx and complete absence of hypopharyngeal sclerites (oncyli). Millipede relocation and burial behaviour of the adults of Sc. hippias and Sc. adamastor are described. We also provide descriptions of the brood chamber and brood balls of Sc. hippias.

Physiological Capacity for Estivation of the Sonoran Mud Turtle,Kinosternon sonoriense

Abstract Sonoran Mud Turtles (Kinosternon sonoriense) are widely believed to be restricted to permanent bodies of water, yet some populations apparently thrive in canyons that dry completely. We investigated the possibility that these turtles could estivate by subjecting individuals collected in the Peloncillo Mountains of New Mexico to 11 weeks without food or water. Turtles apparently used water stored in the urinary bladder to osmoregulate early in the period of deprivation. However, by the end, several blood chemistry parameters (including plasma osmolality, sodium and potassium concentrations, and blood urea nitrogen) had increased anhomeostatically to very high levels; most variables returned to original levels on rehydration. Hematocrit and plasma protein levels were unaffected, suggesting preferential defense of plasma volume by dehydrating turtles. Individuals varied in their burial behavior, and individuals that were surface active became more dehydrated and accumulated more urea than those that...

New chitin-based polymer hybrids, 4: soil burial degradation behavior of poly(vinyl alcohol)/chitin derivative miscible blends

New chitin-based polymer hybrids, 4: soil burial degradation behavior of poly(vinyl alcohol)/chitin derivative miscible blends

New chitin-based polymer hybrids, 4: soil burial degradation behavior of poly(vinyl alcohol)/chitin derivative miscible blends

Soil burial degradation behavior of miscible blend systems of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/partially deacetylated chitin (1), PVA/chitin-graft-poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) (2), and PVA/chitin-graft-poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (3) was investigated in comparison with the case of a pure PVA film. The degradation of the blend films was followed by the weight changes, scanning electron microscopic observation, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, 1H-NMR, and size exclusion chromatography analyses. The rate of weight decrease in these PVA/chitin derivative hybrids was higher than that of control PVA in the soil burial test. Fourier transform infrared spectra of the recovered samples of the blends showed an apparent increase of the absorption intensity due to β-diketone structure in PVA, which reflects the progress of biodegradation of PVA by PVA-oxidizing enzymes. Scanning electron microscopic observation revealed that these blend films were degraded by bacteria and actinomycetes. The triad tacticity and number-average molecular weight of PVA in the hybrids after soil burial determined by 1H-NMR and size exclusion chromatography, respectively, were almost the same as those before soil burial. These results suggested that enzymatic degradation of the hybrid films occurred mainly on the surface and that degradation of the PVA-based samples in the soil was accelerated by blending the chitin derivatives. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 73: 1171–1179, 1999

Experimental evidence of sediment preference by early life history stages of windowpane ( Scophthalmus aquosus)

We evaluated sediment choice by young-of-the-year (YOY) windowpane, Scophthalmus aquosus, in the laboratory. We gave transitional (8–18 mm SL) and larger juvenile windowpane (32–89 mm SL) a choice of sediment mixtures, all of which were within the range observed in the field (tested range: sand–<1% silt/clay; mud–40-45% silt/clay). Observations ( n=1619 in four 48-h trials) were of three kinds: location, burial behaviour, and pigmentation pattern (transitional or juvenile pigmentation). We also tested the effects of food availability and light level on sediment preference. Windowpane of all sizes preferred sand over mud in 65–84% of all observations, but there were differences in sediment preference, burial behaviour, and pigmentation pattern between the transitional and juvenile stages. Transitional windowpane were observed on sand less frequently, buried less often, and exhibited larval pigmentation more often than juveniles. Further analyses showed that transitional fish had a higher probability of moving from the preferred sediment (sand) during hours of darkness, and both stages had a higher probability of moving onto mud when food was absent. Juveniles were also more active when food was absent, but to a lesser extent than transitional fish. We believe that habitat selection may play a crucial role in determining the distribution of YOY windowpane under natural conditions and will aid in our interpretation of post-settlement distribution patterns of field populations in near-shore and estuarine environments in the Middle Atlantic Bight, USA.

The body size–burial depth relationship in the infaunal clam Mya arenaria

Larger infaunal organisms tend to be buried more deeply than smaller conspecifics, but the ultimate (natural selection) reasons for this have received little attention. A model to explain this ubiquitous pattern is based on several key assumptions: (1) deeper burial increases survival, but (2) slows the feeding rate, and (3) large individuals are able to feed more rapidly than small individuals at any depth. Under these assumptions, the fitness-maximizing burial depth for a large individual is greater than for a small individual. Larger individual soft-shell clams Mya arenaria (Linnaeus) were buried more deeply than smaller conspecifics on each of five beaches. Field observations and experiments confirmed that shallowly buried individuals had a lower survival rate than those buried more deeply, due to predation by the red rock crab Cancer productus (Randall). Laboratory measurements of the clearance rates of experimentally buried clams confirmed assumptions (2) and (3). Field measurements of the survival of marked and experimentally buried clams showed that clams were at greater risk of excavation by red rock crabs at low than at high beach elevations, and showed that crab excavation activity decreased with beach elevation. Thus, the risk of mortality for soft-shell clams is higher at low beach elevations. As the model predicts, the burial depth–body size relationship is shifted downwards at low beach elevations. Laboratory experiments discounted the possibility that substratum differences could account for this difference, and furthermore showed that clam burial behavior could be altered by treatments intended to simulate cues about crab activity. We conclude that the positive relation between size and burial depth observed in Mya arenaria arises from trade offs between feeding opportunity and mortality risk.

Identifying the effects of history on adaptation: origins of different sand‐diving techniques in lizards

The effects of previous history on adaptation can be studied in situations where several taxa have been independently exposed to a well‐specified problem posed by their selective regimes. This approach was applied to the ways surface‐dwelling dune lizards dive rapidly into loose sand when evading predators. Lacertids of the genus Meroles use all limbs and serpentine body and tail movements, behaviour which arose directly in the context of predator evasion in sandy habitats. The agamids, Phrynocephalus and Agama etoshae employ lateral body oscillations and descend vertically, an aberrant method resulting from previous evolution of a blunt snout. The scincid, Scincus and gerrhosaurid, Angolosaurus, both use high amplitude sinusoidal movements of the body and tail, which apparently evolved in a common ancestor of these taxa long before being co‐opted to use in sand. In contrast, the scincid, Mabuya acutilabris, holds the body straight, a method that probably originated in the context of concealment at the end of activity.In the phrynosomatid, Uma, the head oscillates up to 60 times per second, the forelimbs are folded back and hindlimb thrust is supplemented by scales on the upper arms acting like ratchets. Some components of this method originated in the context of slow concealment in firm substrata at the end of activity periods, a basic pattern later co‐opted for rapid diving in compact sand with modification of the snout to form a drill. Finally, this elaborated mechanism was transferred to loose sand with further behavioural and morphological change. Rapid sand burial by Phrynosoma species has the same origin as that in Uma but, like Phrynocephalus, includes a strong vertical component. It too is associated with a blunt snout which, however, arose after initial burial behaviour developed, not before.These results suggest that, once related lineages have diverged, differences may still accumulate even in similar situations. Sand diving also exhibits striking cases of convergence and provides an example of how function can be used to polarize characters, suggest the situations in which derived states arose and indicate their likely order of change.

Dung burial strategies in some South African coprine and onitine dung beetles (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

ABSTRACT. The dung colonization and dung burial behaviour of twelve crepuscular/nocturnal tunnelling (paracoprid) species of beetles were examined in order to identify mechanisms which might facilitate resource (dung) partitioning. The species were selected from a diverse assemblage of dung beetles, the members of which coexist in the sandy‐soil regions of Natal, South Africa. The pattern of dung colonization in relation to dung age was examined in the field using baited pitfall traps. Some species, e.g. Onitis deceptor Peringuey, Catharsius tricornutus De Geer and Copris elphenor Klug, showed a marked preference for fresh dung (1–2 days old) whereas other species, e.g. O. viridulus Boheman and Copris fallaciosus Gillet, preferred older dung (3–7 days old). Two distinct patterns of dung burial were recognized. In the Coprini, dung burial was complete within 24–48h of pad colonization, and the level of dung burial was similar in the laboratory and in the field. In the Onitini, dung burial occurred progressively over a 12‐day period, although the timing of initiation of dung burial varied between species: in O. deceptor nearly all individuals had begun burial within 2 days of pad colonization, whereas only 20% of O. viridulus had commenced dung burial by that time. However, nearly all O. viridulus had buried substantial quantities of dung by day 12. The mass of dung buried per pair by the larger coprine beetles (100–300 g) and onitine beetles (400–1000 g) suggests that there is potential for inter‐ and intraspecific competition, even in pads colonized by relatively few beetles. The colonization and use of dung of different ages are discussed as means of resource partitioning in relation to the relative abilities of species to compete for dung.