Pollution Burden Research Articles

Potensi Beban Pencemaran Limbah Sektor Pertanian, Perkebunan dan Peternakan Terhadap DAS Bengawan Solo di Kabupaten Boyolali

The Central Java Province is one of Province with a major agricultural livelihood. Central Java is also rice, corn, and soybean, which in 2019 the productivity of rice was 57.53 million per hectare. The rice land in Central Java is approximately 1.68 million hectares and provides 9.65 million tons of rice (BPS , 2020). The agricultural sector also has a large multifunctional value in terms of improving food security, welfare of farmers, and also helps preserve the environment (Tannaim, Hasriyanti, & Nasiah, 2019). The goal for the study is to find out the potential burden of waste on agricultural, plantation, and livestock at Bengawan Solo Watershed in Boyolali Regency. This research using a quantitative descriptive method. Based on analysis of the livestock sector is by far the largest concentrations than other sectors, which could be proved that the highest wast-producing category of Cepogo dentures with a 2027 tons per year of body waste and a cost-burden of 26196 tons per year. This means that the livestock sector growing in Boyolali Regency could potentially produce a burden of pollution that could disrupt water quality in a Bengawan Solo Watershed.

Beat the plastic: an approach to polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle waste management in Nigeria

Rapid economic growth and production patterns have increased plastic consumption, plastic waste generation, and environmental pollution burden on both land and water habitats across the globe. The use of PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles in packaging has increased tremendously and accounts for a significant proportion of the plastic waste generated in Nigeria, along with its environment and economic cost. Achieving sustainable development goals of sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, ensure access to safe water and sanitation has necessitated the need for an efficient PET bottle waste management system. This study analyzed the PET bottle system in Nigeria and proposes an integrated PET bottle model/system for sustainable waste management, resource conservation, improved environmental sanitation, and economic development in Nigeria. Also, the need for the adoption of a holistic and indigenous approach in the formulation of the national policy on plastic waste management is emphasized, as it will encourage the citizens’ participation and financial investments in waste management.

Disparate air quality impacts from roadway emissions on schools in Santa Clara County (CA)

Vehicle emissions are major sources of air pollution linked to negative health outcomes in children. Consequently, California State Bill 352 stipulates that new schools may not be sited within 500 ft of major roadways. However, the exposure of existing schools to roadway emissions and the uneven distribution of the burden of air pollution have not been systematically explored for most cities. IN response, the objectives of our study were twofold: We used spatial analysis and an evaluation of traffic count data to develop a proximity-based approach to assessing school exposure to roadway air pollution emissions. Second, we applied our method to ask whether the risk of exposure to high concentrations of roadway emissions is equally distributed for schools in Santa Clara County (SCC; USA), and which demographic or spatial patterns emerge. In the process, our proximity-based approach estimated total annual traffic counts throughout SCC, identified major roadways, and assessed cumulative emission burdens and socio-economic indicators for each school in the study area. Results were compared to output from a physically-based model and to county asthma data. Our results suggest that (i) 14% of schools in SCC are potentially exposed to high levels of air pollution from roadways, a rate that is higher than the national average, and (ii) students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds and receiving aid are more likely to be educated in schools with higher risk of exposure to elevated levels of roadway vehicle emissions. Asthma hospitalization rates are highest in socio-economically disadvantaged areas with a higher density of major roadways. Areas of higher vehicle emissions determined by the physically-based model are in general agreement with those of the distance-based approach. We propose a combination of short- and long-term mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of exposure to vehicle emissions for school children.

Spatial and temporal trends in the mortality burden of ozone pollution in China: 2005-2017

Introduction: While recent assessments have quantified the burden of ozone pollution at the national scale in China, air quality managers would benefit from assessments that disaggregate health impacts over regions and over time. Taking advantage of a new daily maximum 8-hour averaged (MDA8) ozone concentration dataset, we analyze spatial and temporal trends of ozone-related mortality burden in China from 2005 to 2017. Methods: Population weighted exposure (PWE) was calculated by overlapping ozone concentrations and population maps. MDA8 ozone concentrations at 10 km resolution from 2005-2017 were from a nationwide prediction model that was based on the XGBoost algorithm and trained by MDA8 ozone observations from 2013 to 2017 combining with concurrent meteorological parameters and land use data. Population data are from Landscan Global Population Database. Using non-accidental total (NAT) deaths as target outcomes, we further calculated the excess deaths by applying exposure response functions from 272 Chinese cities. Results and Discussion: During 2005-2017, MDA8 ozone PWE fluctuated from 87.2 μg/m3 to 92.2 μg/m3, with no obvious upward or downward trends. National PWE are higher than the national average ozone concentration, indicating that the overlap of dense population areas and heavy polluted areas aggravated the mortality burdens. National ozone related NAT deaths increased from approximately 145,000 (95% confidence interval (CI): 70,000-213,000) cases in 2005 to 167,000 (95% CI: 80,000-245,000) cases in 2017. The mortality burden exhibited strong spatial variations, with high excess deaths concentrated in Beijing-Tianjin Metropolitan Region, North China Plain, Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Sichuan Basin, Wuhan Metropolitan Region, and Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan. Hotspots of mortality burden have not expanded significantly over time, that is to say, the regions with heavy mortality burdens appear to be the ones with rapid growth. This undoubtedly makes the health risk of ozone in these areas more severe.

Measuring Burden of Disease Attributable to Air Pollution Due to Preterm Birth Complications and Infant Death in Paris Using Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs).

Several studies have found maternal exposure to particulate matter pollution was associated with adverse birth outcomes, including infant mortality and preterm birth. In this context, our study aims to quantify the air pollution burden of disease due to preterm birth complications and infant death in Paris, with particular attention to people living in the most deprived census blocks. Data on infant death and preterm birth was available from the birth and death certificates. The postal address of mother’s newborn was converted in census block number. A socioeconomic deprivation index was built at the census block level. Average annual ambient concentrations of PM10 were modelled at census block level using the ESMERALDA atmospheric modelling system. The number of infant deaths attributed to PM10 exposure is expressed in years of life lost. We used a three-step compartmental model to appraise neurodevelopmental impairment among survivors of preterm birth. We estimated that 12.8 infant deaths per 100,000 live births may be attributable to PM10 exposure, and about one third of these infants lived in deprived census blocks. In addition, we found that approximately 4.8% of preterm births could be attributable to PM10 exposure, and approximately 1.9% of these infants died (corresponding to about 5.75 deaths per 100,000 live birth). Quantification of environmental hazard-related health impacts for children at local level is essential to prioritizing interventions. Our study suggests that additional effort is needed to reduce the risk of complications and deaths related to air pollution exposure, especially among preterm births. Because of widespread exposure to air pollution, significant health benefits could be achieved through regulatory interventions aimed at reducing exposure of the population as a whole, and particularly of the most vulnerable, such as children and pregnant women.

Analisis Kualitas Air dan Daya Tampung Sungai dengan Metode Qual2Kw (Studi Kasus: Sungai Code, Yogyakarta)

Code River is one of the rivers in the D.I Province Yogyakarta that crosses the administrative areas of Sleman Regency, Bantul Regency and Yogyakarta City. Each administrative region provides input of waste with various contents and affects the capacity of the pollution load with the study area along ± 21 km. The study was conducted at the point of Ngentak, Gondolayu, Sayidan, Keparakan, Tungkak, Ngoto and Wonokromo. The study area is divided into 6 segments for water sampling. In the study conducted with 4 scenario simulations based on existing conditions, prediction of population in the next 5 years, conformity of class I quality standards without pollutant burden and trial error. The method used to analyze water quality is the QUAL2Kw method. By using this software, it can be easier to simulate changes in the upstream to downstream areas. This study aims to analyze the capacity of the pollution load on the concentration of Ammonia, Phosphate and TSS in order to determine the strategy of water quality management in the Code River

Children breathe their own air: Reflections on children’s geographies, the urban political ecology of air pollution, and ongoing participatory action research with undergraduates near an east London primary school

The health effects of urban air pollution are particularly acute for children. This paper details a research project with undergraduates drawing on UPE and children’s geography that attempts to address the uneven burdens of air pollution in an east London neighbourhood.

Onsite anaerobic treatment of aquaponics lettuce waste: digestion efficiency and nutrient recovery

Aquaponics plant waste, such as the non-edible parts of many vegetable crops, can be a source of environmental pollution, while its treatment might cause an economic burden. Therefore, efficient use of this waste would be advantageous. This study aimed at investigating anaerobic digestion of aquqponic lettuce waste to recover nutrients and energy through biogas production. A 700 L commercial anaerobic system was used to treat lettuce wastes from an aquaponic farming system that operated under desert climate and steady-state conditions. Digestion efficiency of the lettuce waste was 90.1% by weight, producing a maximum biogas volume of 0.65 m3/kg dry weight per day. Biogas composition contained on average 59.2% methane and 38.9% CO2 with only negligible hydrogen sulfide content. Moreover, the supernatant from the anaerobic digester contained elevated nutrient concentrations (N, P, K, Ca, and Fe), which can potentially be used onsite as a fertilizer. Onsite anaerobic digestion of lettuce plant waste from the aquaponic system under summer desert conditions is demonstrated for the first time to efficiently reduce pollution burden, produce high-quality biogas, and recover nutrients.

Is energy the key to pursuing clean air and water at the city level? A case study of Jinan City, China

Concern toward air and water pollution is increasing worldwide due to their adverse impacts on human health and the ecosystem. Cities are the core of in policy design and implementation as they are basic administrative units. However, existing studies only conducted city-level carbon dioxide calculations at the inventory level and failed to reflect its impacts on health and the ecosystem. In this study, air and water pollution at the city level were quantitatively analyzed from environmental and economic perspectives by conducting a case study of Jinan City, China, from 2005 to 2017. The results showed that the human and ecological impacts and economic burdens of pollution were 1.60 × 105 DALY, 600.13 species.year, and $5.36 × 109 in 2017, respectively, which were mainly derived from air pollution. This study demonstrated that energy consumption contributed the most to the overall impacts. CO2, PM10, SO2, and Cu are key crucial substances for reducing environmental and economic burdens. Key sector analysis revealed that the impacts were mainly due to raw coal consumption in the electric and heat power sector. The ecosystem quality impact of imported energy was 1.45 times higher than that of direct emissions. Effective measures of managing the environmental and economic impacts of air and water pollution at the city-level include adjusting the types of energy used, the promotion of clean coal technologies, adjusting the industrial structure, implementing total quantity control, and internalizing external costs.

Use of liquefied petroleum gas in Puno, Peru: Fuel needs under conditions of free fuel and near-exclusive use

Reducing the burden of household air pollution could be achieved with exclusive adoption of cleaner fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). However, we lack understanding of how much LPG is required to support exclusive use and how household characteristics affect this quantity. This paper used data from 90 participants in the Cardiopulmonary outcomes and Household Air Pollution (CHAP) trial in Puno, Peru who received free LPG deliveries for one year. Households with a mean of four members that cooked nearly exclusively (>98%) with LPG used an average of 19.1kg (95% CI 18.5 to 19.6) of LPG per month for tasks similar to those done with the traditional biomass stove. LPG use per month was 0.5kg higher for each additional pig or dog owned (p=0.003), 0.7kg higher for each additional household member (p<0.001), 0.3kg higher for households in the second-lowest compared to the lowest wealth quintile (p=0.01), and 1.1kg higher if the household had previously received subsidized LPG (p=0.05). LPG use per month was 1.1kg lower during the rainy season (p<0.001) and 1.7kg lower during the planting season (p<0.001) compared to the cold and harvest seasons, despite the fact that LPG was not typically used for space heating. LPG use decreased by 0.05kg per month over the course of one year after receiving the LPG stove (p=0.02). These results suggest that achieving exclusive LPG use in Puno, Peru requires that rural residents have affordable access to an average of two 10kg LPG tanks per month. Conducting similar investigations in other countries could help policymakers set and target LPG subsidies to ensure that households have access to enough LPG to achieve exclusive LPG use and the potential health benefits.

An equity analysis of clean vehicle rebate programs in California

Rebates incentivize clean vehicle adoption but may raise equity concerns because upfront capital is required for vehicle acquisition, limiting access for low-income households. Since poorer communities typically experience worse air quality than their wealthier counterparts, rebates also may not incentivize clean vehicle acquisitions in more polluted areas where air quality benefits would be greater. We analyzed whether equity-promoting policy design elements changed the associations between rebate allocation rates and census tract characteristics including community disadvantage, household income, education, race and ethnicity, and ambient air pollution in two California rebate programs. We found that the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project issued more rebates per household to advantaged, higher-income, better-educated communities with more White residents and intermediate levels of ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO2). An income cap and income-tiered rebate amount introduced part way through the program improved distributional equity, but fewer rebates were still issued to lower income, less-educated census tracts with higher percentages of Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black residents. Furthermore, these policy design elements reduced the overall number of rebates that were distributed. In the Enhanced Fleet Modernization Program, which incorporates additional equity-related design elements, rebate allocation rates were positively associated with community disadvantage, lower income and education, and a higher proportion of Hispanics, and were the highest in areas with slightly higher NO2 levels. These findings indicate that design elements such as an income cap, income-tiered rebate amounts, expanded vehicle eligibility, and increased benefit eligibility in disadvantaged communities, can facilitate distribution of rebates to more socioeconomically diverse populations with higher air pollution burdens.

Racial Disparities in Air Pollution Burden and COVID-19 Deaths in Louisiana, USA, in the Context of Long-Term Changes in Fine Particulate Pollution

Black Americans in Louisiana are disproportionately dying from COVID-19, and environmental disparities may be contributing to this injustice. While Black communities in Louisiana's industrialized regions (e.g., Cancer Alley, Calcasieu Parish) have been overburdened with pollution for decades, this disparity has not been evaluated by using recent data. Here, we explore statewide relationships among air pollution burden, race, COVID-19 death rates, and other health/socioeconomic factors. Measures of pollution burden included satellite-derived particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations and health risks from toxic air pollution (i.e., respiratory hazard [RH] and immunological hazard [IH], estimated by the Environmental Protection Agency). In addition, we evaluate changes in emissions and ambient concentrations of fine PM2.5 in Louisiana over the past few decades. Our overall goal was to better understand Louisiana's burden of air pollution in the context of COVID-19. By all measures, a higher burden of air pollution was associated with larger percentages of Black residents and increased unemployment across Louisiana census tracts. Across parishes, higher COVID-19 death rates were associated with increased RH and IH and larger percentages of Black residents. These associations were not driven by diabetes, obesity, smoking, age, or poverty. Industrial sources comprised more of Louisiana's PM2.5 in 2017 versus 1990, as vehicle contributions declined 75% whereas industrial emissions remained about the same overall (despite variation in the interim). Ambient concentrations of PM2.5 decreased statewide from 2000 to 2015, but subsequently increased in south Louisiana, concurrent with an upward trend in industrial emissions. Our findings highlight the critical need to address Louisiana's pollution disparities and to recognize air pollution exposure as a risk factor for COVID-19.

The economic impact of air pollution: a European assessment

Abstract Background In 2017, the Global Burden of Disease Study estimated that in Europe 0.42 million deaths and 8.9 million disability-adjusted life years were attributable to air pollution. Monetizing this burden is a key step for estimating benefits of exposure reduction strategies. However, robust and synthetic estimates of direct (e.g. due to hospitalizations or medications) and indirect (e.g. due to premature mortality or loss of productivity) health-related costs of air pollution seem to be still lacking. We carried out a systematic review, aimed at identifying evidence from research in Europe. Methods We searched 5 electronic databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, SCOPUS, Web Of Science) in which we applied algorithms tracing keywords such as “cost of illness”, “health care costs”, “economics” and synonyms, together with “air pollution” and synonyms. We limited our search to articles written in English and Italian, without date restriction. Results The initial search retrieved 2420 records. 200 were classified as relevant, and 38 fulfilled inclusion criteria. Most of them (68%) were published after 2010. 26% were multi-country studies, while the remaining focused on a single country or city. Investigated pollutants were usually particulate matter (79% of the studies) and nitrogen oxides (37%). The approaches to the economic analysis were heterogeneous: estimates could include direct and/or indirect costs. Among the studies, the most comprehensive one (12 countries) estimated that complying with WHO guidelines would avert €31 billion yearly, of which €19 million due to hospitalizations. Conclusions Over the last decade, progress has been made in evaluating the economic burden of air pollution. However, estimates based on indirect costs are affected by high levels of uncertainty, while those based on direct costs are more robust and should be further investigated, since they are crucial information for healthcare policy makers. Key messages Air pollution poses a high economic burden on European countries, mainly due to social costs. More attention should be devoted to estimating direct healthcare costs of air pollution, in order to properly inform policy makers about the impact on healthcare systems.

Where’s the beef? Costco’s meat supply chain and environmental justice in California

Although the environmental and social burdens associated with the production of beef are well-understood, due to supply chain complexities, we rarely know precisely where these impacts occur or who is affected. This limitation is a barrier to more sustainable production and consumption of animal products. In this study, we combine life cycle thinking with an environmental justice approach to map Costco’s beef supply chain in California and to explore the environmental burden of air pollution (PM2.5) due to beef production in the San Joaquin Valley, a region that has some of the worst air quality in the United States. To map the supply chain of one of Costco’s primary suppliers, Harris Ranch, and the feedlots they operate, the study uses a methodological framework known as Tracking Corporations Across Space and Time (TRACAST). Our modeling revealed that feedlots produce ∼95% of total PM2.5 emissions across the beef supply chain, and they alone account for approximately 1/3 of total anthropogenic PM2.5 emissions in the Valley. PM2.5 concentrations are markedly higher around these facilities. The spatial analysis revealed that communities living near feedlots are often poor, predominantly Latinx and have increased PM2.5 related disease burdens, including asthma, heart disease and low weight birth. Based on company documents and news reports, neither Costco nor Harris Ranch are addressing this environmental injustice. Documenting the geographically specific impacts of livestock production opens up opportunities for corporations to address environmental injustices in their supply chains through more sustainable sourcing and production practices, and for consumers to rethink their consumption of meat.

Environmental chemical burden in metabolic tissues and systemic biological pathways in adolescent bariatric surgery patients: A pilot untargeted metabolomic approach

BackgroundAdvances in untargeted metabolomic technologies have great potential for insight into adverse metabolic effects underlying exposure to environmental chemicals. However, important challenges need to be addressed, including how biological response corresponds to the environmental chemical burden in different target tissues. AimWe performed a pilot study using state-of-the-art ultra-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHRMS) to characterize the burden of lipophilic persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in metabolic tissues and associated alterations in the plasma metabolome. MethodsWe studied 11 adolescents with severe obesity at the time of bariatric surgery. We measured 18 POPs that can act as endocrine and metabolic disruptors (i.e. 2 dioxins, 11 organochlorine compounds [OCs] and 5 polybrominated diphenyl ethers [PBDEs]) in visceral and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (vAT and sAT), and liver samples using gas chromatography with UHRMS. Biological pathways were evaluated by measuring the plasma metabolome using high-resolution metabolomics. Network and pathway enrichment analysis assessed correlations between the tissue-specific burden of three frequently detected POPs (i.e. p,p’-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene [DDE], hexachlorobenzene [HCB] and PBDE-47) and plasma metabolic pathways. ResultsConcentrations of 4 OCs and 3 PBDEs were quantifiable in at least one metabolic tissue for > 80% of participants. All POPs had the highest median concentrations in adipose tissue, especially sAT, except for PBDE-154, which had comparable average concentrations across all tissues. Pathway analysis showed high correlations between tissue-specific POPs and metabolic alterations in pathways of amino acid metabolism, lipid and fatty acid metabolism, and carbohydrate metabolism. ConclusionsMost of the measured POPs appear to accumulate preferentially in adipose tissue compared to liver. Findings of plasma metabolic pathways potentially associated with tissue-specific POPs concentrations merit further investigation in larger populations.

Prevalence of SHV gene and antibiotic resistance of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli strains isolated from abattoir wastewater in Mazandaran Province, north of Iran

Abattoir wastewater is a major source of pollution burden and life-treating human pathogenic bacteria. The aim of this study was to determine the extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing (ESBL) producing E. coli isolates and their antibiotic resistances in wastewater samples. In this experimental study, abattoir wastewater samples were collected and identified from 32 different regions in Mazandaran Province, North Iran. Disk agar diffusion test was applied for testing antibiotic resistance. Phenotypic detection of ESBL-producing isolates was performed using combined disk method. The presence of blaSHV gene was investigated using PCR method. The prevalence of E. coli in wastewater samples was 10%. The ESBL test analysis was positive for 14 (93.33%) isolates. The prevalence of blaSHV gene in ESBL-producing E. coli isolates was 93.34%. The highest antibiotic resistances in ESBL-producing E. coli were found concerning to ceftizoxime and gentamicin (100%), nalidixic acid, ceftazidime and ciprofloxacin (93.34%). Nitrofurantoin was the most effective antibiotic against E. coli isolate exhibiting the highest sensitivity (73.34%). In conclusion, the prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli is high and being increased. The high prevalence of blaSHV gene in these isolates may be a reason for their pathogenesis and ability in transferring the resistance genes to multiple antibiotics. Therefore, there is a need to develop appropriate treatment and safer disposing abattoir wastes in this province.

Wind can reduce storage-induced emissions at grid scales

Energy storage provides many benefits that can improve electric grid performance but has been shown to increase overall system emissions. Yet, how energy storage might interreact with renewables in existing grids and how these interactions affect overall emissions remain unclear. Here, we estimate emissions induced by battery energy storage in two regions of the United States with very different levels of wind penetration using high-resolution, both spatially and temporally, locational marginal prices and hourly marginal emission factors. We find that the emission intensity of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and mercury is 4264% lower in the high wind penetration grid (28%) than in the low wind penetration grid (<5%). This is due in part to a significant share of wind dispatched as marginal fuel in baseload hours when battery storage charges from the grid, reducing storage-induced emissions. Our study suggests that more wind generation can favorably pair with storage and reduce the air pollution burdens otherwise caused by storage.

The burden of air pollution and temperature on Raynaud's phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis.

to evaluate the effect of air pollution (ozone - O3 and particulate matter <=10 μm and <=2.5 μm - PM10 and PM2.5) on the severity of Raynaud's phenomenon (RP) secondary to systemic sclerosis (SSc). cross-sectional, observational, and single centre study. all consecutive SSc patients residing in Lombardy (Northern Italy) were enrolled. PM10, PM2.5, and O3 concentrations were calculated for each patient at municipality resolution in the week before the evaluation. Similar considerations were made for meteorological variables (temperature and humidity). patients were asked to assess RP severity during the week before the evaluation according to a visual analogue scale (VAS). Ordinal logistic regression models were fitted to evaluate the short-term effect of temperature and air pollution with respect to RP. A univariate linear regression model was created to consider the association between temperature and pollutants. in this study, 87 SSc patients were enrolled. Temperature was confirmed to strongly influence RP severity. PM10 and PM.5 were found to significantly worsen RP severity for the first four days before the evaluation, including the day of the visit, and as mean up to six days before the evaluation. O3 seemed to exert a protective effect on RP severity that was significant for the first four days before the evaluation, including the day of the visit, and as mean up to seven days before the evaluation. since the overwhelming effect of temperature on RP, final conclusions about the exact contribution of pollutants on RP severity cannot be drawn because of the strong inter-correlation between air pollution and temperature.

The changing PM2.5 dynamics of global megacities based on long-term remotely sensed observations

Satellite observations show that the rapid urbanization and emergence of megacities with 10 million or more residents have raised PM2.5 concentrations across the globe during the past few decades. This study examines PM2.5 dynamics for the 33 cities included on the UN list of megacities published in 2018. These megacities were classified into densely (>1500 residents per km2), moderately (300–1500 residents per km2) and sparsely (<300 residents per km2) populated areas to examine the effect of human population density on PM2.5 concentrations in these areas during the period 1998–2016. We found that: (1) the higher population density areas experienced higher PM2.5 concentrations; and (2) the megacities with high PM2.5 concentrations in these areas had higher concentrations than those in the moderately and sparsely populated areas of other megacities as well. The numbers of residents experiencing poor air quality is substantial: approximately 452 and 163 million experienced average annual PM2.5 levels exceeding 10 and 35 μg/m3, respectively in 2016. We also examined PM2.5 trends during the past 18 years and predict that high PM2.5 levels will likely continue in many of these megacities in the future without substantial changes in their economies and/or pollution abatement practices. There will be more megacities in the highest PM2.5 pollution class and the number of megacities in the lowest PM2.5 pollution class will likely not change. Finally, we analyzed how the PM2.5 pollution burden varies geographically and ranked the 33 megacities in terms of PM2.5 pollution in 2016. The most polluted regions are China, India, and South Asia and the least polluted regions are Europe and Japan. None of the 33 megacities currently fall in the WHO’s PM2.5 attainment class (<10 μg/m3) while 9 megacities fall into the PM2.5 non-attainment class (>35 μg/m3). In 2016, the least polluted megacity was New York and most polluted megacity was Delhi whose average annual PM2.5 concentration of 110 μg/m3 is nearly three times the WHO’s non-attainment threshold.

Urban\u2013rural disparity in the relationship between ambient air pollution and preterm birth

BackgroundSome studies have reported that air pollution exposure can have adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes. However, the disparity between urban and rural areas in the risk of preterm birth (PTB) has yet to be elucidated. Considering geographic contexts as homogeneous or ignoring urban–rural differences cannot accurately reveal the disparities in the health effects of air pollution under different geographic contexts. The aims of this study were to examine the disparities in the risks of PTB in three different regions and five urban–rural types and to investigate the extent to which fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure during the entire pregnancy can explain the variations.MethodsWe collected data on 429,865 singleton newborns born in 2014 in Hubei Province, China, and divided Hubei Province into three regions. Spatial correlation methods were employed to measure the associations between the rate of PTB and air pollution using average annual indexes for the entire province and regions. A series of multilevel logistic models were conducted to examine disparities in the risks of PTB with decreases in urbanity and the effects of air pollution exposure on the occurrence of preterm births.ResultsThe PM2.5 concentration was significantly different across the regions. The eastern region had the most wide-ranged and serious level of pollution, whereas the levels in the middle and western regions weakened. The odds of PTB and air pollution exhibited a positive spatial correlation for the entire province and in the east (BiMoran’s I = 0.106 and 0.697, respectively). Significant urban–rural disparities in the risks of PTB were noted in the east and middle regions, and the mean PM2.5 exposure during the entire pregnancy was positively associated with PTB risk. However, in the west, the results showed weak differences in the risks of PTB among the five urban–rural types and an insignificant effect of PM2.5 exposure. The direction of the effect of district/county-level income on PTB varied by region.ConclusionsThis study finds that air pollution exposure and PTB have significant and positive spatial relationships in areas with a serious air pollution burden. The risks of PTB in three regions of Hubei Province follow the same W-shaped pattern as urbanity decreases and rurality increases. High levels of air pollution exposure may be an important disadvantage for urban pregnant women in this setting.