Burden Of Osteoporosis Research Articles

Burden of osteoporosis and fractures in developing countries

The burden of osteoporosis in developing countries is increasing dramatically with the aging of the population and demographic trends; however, there is a lack of direct epidemiologic data. There are clear differences at present between and within populations that limits the validity of many estimates and more data is needed. Existing data and estimates are considered in terms of bone mass, bone structure, 10-year and lifetime probability of fracture, numbers sustaining fractures, the outcome of fracture, importance of differences in fracture management, and risk factors for their occurrence and outcome. Future trends are also considered.

Muscle performance after the menopause

The timing of the menopause transition has remained fairly constant throughout history. It represents a milestone in female health and, after passing through it, women experience increased musculoskeletal and cardiovascular morbidity. Muscle performance is an important determinant of functional capacity and quality of life among the elderly and is also involved in the maintenance of balance. Therefore, good muscle strength can prevent fragility fractures and lessen the burden of osteoporosis. Muscle strength begins to decline during the perimenopausal years and this phenomenon seems to be partly estrogen dependent. Randomized controlled trials have indicated that hormone replacement therapy may prevent a decline in muscle performance, although the exact mechanism of estrogen-dependent sarcopenia remains to be clarified. Exercises have been shown to improve postmenopausal muscle performance and hormone replacement therapy may also potentiate these beneficial effects. Improvement or maintenance of muscle strength alone, however, may not be considered as a primary indication for long-term hormone replacement therapy in view of current knowledge of its risks and benefits. Work history and educational background may be associated with postmenopausal muscle performance, which itself has unique associations with skeletal and cardiovascular diseases.

Economic burden of osteoporosis, breast cancer, and cardiovascular disease among postmenopausal women in an employed population

Postmenopausal women have a significant risk of developing a number of chronic conditions including osteoporosis (OP), breast cancer (BrCa), and cardiovascular disease (CVD). These diseases can result in significant direct (medical treatment) and indirect (workplace) costs. The objective of this study is to assess these costs among an employed population. Deidentified medical and disability claims data from seven large employers (n = 585,441) were analyzed from 1998 through 2000 for female employees, age 50-64 years. Medical claim ICD-9CM codes were used to identify patients treated for: OP (n = 2,314), BrCa (n = 555), and CVD (n = 1,710). Each disease cohort was compared to a random sample of 50- to 64-year-old female employees (n = 7,575). Descriptive and multivariate techniques were used to characterize direct and indirect costs attributable to each condition. Average annual direct costs were higher (p < .001) for female employees treated for OP (6,259 dollars), BrCa (13,925 dollars), or CVD (12,055 dollars) when compared with the random sample (2,951 dollars). In addition, average annual indirect costs associated with OP (4,039 dollars), BrCa (8,236 dollars), and CVD (4,990 dollars) were higher (p < .001) than indirect costs for the random sample (2,292 dollars). Even when controlling for each disease-state cohort's demographics and disease-specific comorbidities, patients treated for OP, BrCa, and CVD continued to have significantly greater direct and indirect costs (p < .001) than the random sample. Chronic conditions such as OP, BrCa, and CVD, which occur more frequently in women after menopause, impose a significant financial burden. Greater health care utilization and work-loss prevalence among women treated for these conditions contribute to these additional costs.

Where now for the management of osteoporosis?

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disorder, leading to bone fragility and fracture. Recent guidance from the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) emphasizes the importance of secondary prevention of fragility fractures in postmenopausal women. What impact can the expanding range of treatments make on the growing and costly burden of osteoporosis?

Longitudinal progression of fracture prevalence through a population of postmenopausal women with osteoporosis.

To determine the longitudinal progression of fractures through a population of osteoporotic women with no existing vertebral fractures. The probability of having one or more vertebral fractures in the next year given a current status of 0-13 existing vertebral fractures was estimated using data from control patients of an osteoporosis clinical trial program. Fracture probabilities were used to form a transition matrix that models the change in fracture state from one year to the next. A Markov model was used to show the distribution of fracture prevalence over time for a population of women with osteoporosis but, initially, with no existing vertebral fractures. An osteoporotic woman without existing vertebral fractures has a 7.7% chance (95% CI, 5.8% to 9.9%) of having a vertebral fracture within 1 year. After 5 years, 33% (95% CI, 25% to 41%) will have developed vertebral fractures, of which 11% (95% CI, 8% to 16%) will have > or =2 fractures. After 10 years, 55% (95% CI, 44% to 65%) will have developed vertebral fractures, of which 29% (95% CI, 22% 37%) will have > or =2 fractures. Each 1% absolute reduction in the annual first-fracture risk corresponds to an approximate 4% reduction in the 5-year fracture incidence. Therefore, reducing the risk of first fracture from 8% to 2% reduces the 5-year fracture incidence from approximately 34% to approximately 10%. Fracture prevalence rapidly increases over time in a population of osteoporotic women despite treatment with calcium and vitamin D supplements. Identifying and treating patients at risk of fracture, but who have not yet sustained a fracture, will substantially reduce the long-term burden of osteoporosis.

Psychometric properties of the Persian version of the osteoporosis knowledge and health belief questionnaires

Osteoporosis has emerged as one of the most common diseases in the aged population. Approximately 25% of women and 10% of men aged 60 years or above are affected by osteoporosis [ [1] Nguyen TV, Eisman JA. Risk factors for low bone mass in elderly men. In: Orwoll ES, editor. Osteoporosis in men. San Diego: Academic Press; 1999. p. 335–62. Google Scholar ]. Osteoporosis is one of the most significant public health problems in the world because it pre-disposes to fractures with minimal or no antecedent trauma. These fractures are, in turn, associated with increased mortality, reduced quality of life and high health care costs [ [2] Cummings S.R. Melton L.J. Epidemiology and outcomes of osteoporotic fractures. Lancet. 2002; 359: 1761-1767 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2781) Google Scholar ]. Prevention, including regular physical activity and adequate calcium intake, is recognized as a valuable strategy to reduce the prevalence and burden of osteoporosis [ 3 NIH Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis and Therapy. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis and therapy. JAMA 2001;285(6):785–95. Google Scholar , 4 North American Menopause Society. The role of calcium in peri- and postmenopausal women: consensus opinion of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2001;8(2):84–95. Google Scholar , 5 Dawson-Hughes B. Calcium and vitamin D nutritional needs of elderly women. J Nutr. 1996; 126: 1165S-1167S PubMed Google Scholar , 6 Kanis J.A. The use of calcium in the management of osteoporosis. Bone. 1999; 24: 279-290 Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar , 7 Forwood M.R. Larsen J.A. Exercise recommendations for osteoporosis; a position statement of the Australian and New Zealand Bone and Mineral Society. Aust Fam Physician. 2000; 29: 761-764 PubMed Google Scholar ].

An estimate of the worldwide prevalence, mortality and disability associated with hip fracture

The aim of this study was to quantify the global burden of osteoporosis as judged by hip fracture and the burden in different socio-economic regions of the world. The population mortality in 1990 and the incidence of hip fracture in different regions were identified, where possible in 1990. Excess mortality from hip fracture used data for Sweden, and disability weights were assigned to survivors from hip fracture. In 1990 there were an estimated 1.31 million new hip fractures, and the prevalence of hip fractures with disability was 4.48 million. There were 740,000 deaths estimated to be associated with hip fracture. There were 1.75 million disability adjusted life-years lost, representing 0.1% of the global burden of disease world-wide and 1.4% of the burden amongst women from the established market economies. We conclude that hip fracture is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide.

The burden of osteoporosis in Latin America.

Osteoporosis causes considerable morbidity, mortality and resource utilization in industrialized nations. Its burden is relatively well known in United States and Canada, but poorly studied in the rest of America. This study aimed to discover the burden of osteoporosis in Latin America through a review of literature and publicly available information. In this transversal and descriptive study, information from 20 countries in Latin American region was collected from diverse published and electronic sources. Rheumatologists and bone specialists were asked for additional information through a questionnaire created by consensus. In the year 2000, the population of the Latin America and Caribbean region was 524 million from diverse ethnic origins. On average, 5.5% of the population is 65 years and older. However, with life expectancy higher than 70 years in most countries, a significant growth in the elderly population is anticipated. Studies using World Health Organization's criteria for osteoporosis report 12-18% of women 50 years and older with vertebral osteoporosis and 8-22% with proximal femur osteoporosis. Community based studies in Argentina reported between 263 and 331 hip fractures per 100,000 people 50 years and older. Hospital based studies in Colombia, Chile, Brazil, Mexico, Panama, Peru and Venezuela reported between 40 and 362 hip fractures per 100,000 persons aged 50 and more. Between 17 and 37% of hip fracture sufferers die in the year following fracture. Prevalence of vertebral fractures in community-dwelling women aged 50 and more in Mexico is 19.35%. Data on other fractures are rare. Direct costs of a hip fracture ranged from $4500 to $6000. National gross income per capita in the region ranges from $410 to $7550. The burden of osteoporosis varies across countries with differences in populations and health resources. Considerable support for research is required, since numerous gaps in knowledge need to be filled to face the anticipated explosive growth in osteoporotic fractures.

The Burden of Osteoporosis and the Case for Disease Management

Currently, osteoporosis, defined as low bone mineral density (BMD), affects 30% of postmenopausal women and 8% of men >50 years old in Western society and these percentages are likely to increase as our elderly population expands. Osteoporosis-related fractures increase with age and reductions in BMD, with the greatest increase in hip, followed by vertebral, and then wrist fractures. Osteoporosis is associated with significant mortality and for each 1 SD decrease in BMD there is a 1.5-fold increase in mortality risk. Following a hip fracture, 25–30% of patients will die within 3–6 months and in some populations hip fractures account for 1.5% of all deaths. Osteoporosis and related fractures are associated with significant morbidity, with loss of independence, psychological effects, and an overall decreased quality of life. The current financial cost of osteoporosis in the US is $US14 billion and in the UK just over £1 billion, and these costs will increase 3- to 8-fold over the next 50 years. Treatments are available that have been shown to significantly increase BMD, decrease bone turnover, and as a result decrease fracture incidence. For reductions in both vertebral and fracture, the evidence is strongest for the use of the bisphosphonates alendronate and risedronate; while for vertebral fracture, effective treatments include raloxifene, etidronate, calcitonin, and calcium plus vitamin D. Recent data suggest that hormone replacement therapy (HRT) can prevent hip and vertebral fractures, but long-term use, or commencement in elderly women of some continuous combined preparations, is no longer recommended. It has been recognized that bone turnover and bone quality contribute to fracture risk and, therefore, biochemical assessment of bone resorption and formation may increase the clinical and cost effectiveness of treatment. Using a conservative estimate of fracture reduction (35%) over a 5-year period, an intervention costing $US500 (£333) per year is cost effective when targeted to women with osteoporosis who are ≥65 years of age. It has been calculated that the lower the intervention cost and the higher the effectiveness of treatment the lower the age at which the treatment would be cost effective. The increasing healthcare burden and effective treatments make osteoporosis an excellent candidate for disease management programs.

Methodology for Estimating Current and Future Burden of Osteoporosis in State Populations: Application to Florida in 2000 through 2025

Objectives The aging population is expected to increase the burden of osteoporosis on the US health-care system. We developed a methodology for estimating current and future costs of osteoporosis in state populations and applied it to Florida. Methods We used Florida hospital, population and mortality data, along with national data on outpatient and long-term care, to estimate the cost of osteoporotic fractures in the year 2000. For men and for “other” fractures in women, costs were based on the incidence of hospital admissions for fractures. For hip, spine, and wrist fractures in women, we integrated hospital and nonhospital fracture incidence in a Markov model of osteoporosis. Consecutive cohorts were run by race for each age, 50 to 99 years, to estimate the number and cost of incident fractures. Ongoing costs of prevalent fractures in women were estimated using postfracture health states for each individual age cohort. Total costs and fractures for the years 2001 through 2025 were projected by multiplying the base-year cost and fracture distribution by age-, sex-, and race-specific population growth rates. Results In Florida, 86,428 osteoporotic fractures were estimated to occur in the year 2000 at a cost of $1,238,445,114. By 2025, the estimated number of incident fractures would increase to 151,622, at a cost of $2,135,130,564. Conclusions This disease-modeling approach generates detailed information on the current and future cost burden of osteoporosis for an individual state population. Predictions based on this methodology may enable health-policy decisions that are tailored to local needs.

Burden of osteoporosis and fractures

Osteoporosis currently affects up to one in three women and one in 12 men. In 1990, there were 1.6 million hip fractures per annum worldwide and this number is estimated to reach 6 million by 2050. This increase in the number of fractures is due to an increase in the number of elderly people in the population, improved survival, and an increase in the age-specific fracture rates of unknown etiology. The rising number of osteoporotic fractures and their associated morbidity will place a heavy burden on future health care resources. In the United States, the cost for the management of osteoporosis has been estimated at $17 billion. The majority of this cost is spent on the acute surgical and medical management following hip fracture, and the subsequent rehabilitation. Currently, only minimal costs are utilized for treatment and prevention of osteoporosis. Hopefully, however, an accurate assessment of the burden of osteoporosis on the individual and the health care system will enable the targeting of resources to tackle this growing problem. With an increasing number of effective pharmaceutical interventions, it is critical that these agents are targeted to those at greatest risk for future fracture. This will ultimately reduce the burden of osteoporosis in future years.

The burden of osteoporosis in California, 1998.

This study estimates the cost of osteoporosis in California, including health care services and the value of lives lost prematurely to the disease. Costs are estimated for diagnoses of "osteoporosis" and for the proportion of spine, forearm, hip and other fractures that are caused by the disease. The additional costs resulting from a secondary diagnosis of osteoporosis are also included. Osteoporosis accounted for over $2.4 billion in direct health care costs in 1998, and over $4 million in lost productivity resulting from premature death. Most of the cost results from hip fractures and other fractures. In fact, only 15% of costs are for people with a diagnosis of "osteoporosis" per se, and, of this group, most of the costs are associated with a secondary, not a primary diagnosis. The disease is largely a diagnosis of older white women: three-quarters of the hospitalization costs are incurred by women, 80% of those hospitalized are white, and three-quarters are over age 65 years. As would be expected, Medicare pays for most of the hospital care -- almost three-fourths of the total. Nursing home care represents the largest cost for people with osteoporosis, accounting for 59% of the money spent treating the disease.

All patients with inflammatory bowel disease should have bone density assessment: pro.

Bone loss is a common problem for individuals with inflammatory bowel disease. Corticosteroids play an important role in the development of osteoporosis in these patients; however, active disease and longer disease duration also appear to increase the risk of osteoporosis. Given the current burden of osteoporosis, bone mineral density is recommended.

Osteoporosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: prevention and treatment.

The patient with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is at risk of osteoporosis through several factors: the inflammatory disease itself, disease-related co-morbidity, and its treatment. Bone loss is apparent early in the disease and this may be confounded primarily by treatment with corticosteroids. Patients should be assessed for additional risk factors for osteoporosis and general lifestyle measures adopted. Bone mineral density measurement should be considered in SLE patients at high risk of osteoporosis, particularly those starting corticosteroids and in postmenopausal women. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation provide general prophylaxis and are a suitable first-line option. Hormone replacement should be used in hypogondal subjects unless contra-indicated. In subjects at high fracture risk, particularly in postmenopausal women, bisphosphonate therapy should be considered as these agents have been shown to significantly reduce vertebral fracture risk. These measures should reduce the burden of osteoporosis and fracture in patients with lupus.

Cost-effectiveness research in osteoporosis

The clinical and economic burden of osteoporosis is high and has resulted in increasing interest in assessing the costs and benefits associated with strategies to reduce the incidence of fracture. In this article, we aim to summarize the major issues related to conducting economic evaluations of therapies for osteoporosis. We identify the principal data parameters (baseline clinical probabilities, effectiveness, costs, and utilities) and economic model characteristics (patient age, compliance, and duration of therapy). We highlight these issues by referring to previous studies identified in a systematic review and to current work in the area. Further discussion provides an overview of the results of the existing economic evaluations of therapies for osteoporosis and a brief summary of ongoing research in Canada. In conclusion, there appears to be a consensus in the literature that under most circumstances hormone replacement therapy is cost-effective in the treatment of osteoporosis. Further research is required before definitive conclusions on the cost-effectiveness of other therapies can be made. Drug Dev. Res. 49:135–140, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The burden of osteoporosis.

The burden of osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis: Who, When, How Long to Treat, and with What Effectiveness?

The burden of osteoporosis is increasing due to the longevity of the population as well as due to increases in age- and sex-specific rates. With a better understanding of causation, treatment and intervention strategies require development. Global strategies aimed at the population to decrease fracture risk have not been tested so that greatest attention has been devoted to high-risk strategies where segments of the community are identified for treatment. There is a poor case for screening women at the time of menopause with assessment of bone mineral density. The rationale for screening in later life is much stronger but has not been tested. In the meanwhile, a case-finding approach is advocated where individuals at particular risk are identified by the presence of clinical risk factors. In such patients treatments can be cost-effectively targeted and cost effectiveness improved further by assessment of bone mineral density.

Medical expenditures for the treatment of osteoporotic fractures in the United States in 1995: report from the National Osteoporosis Foundation.

Osteoporotic fractures are a significant public health problem, resulting in substantial morbidity and mortality. Previous estimates of the economic burden of osteoporosis, however, have not fully accounted for the costs associated with treatment of nonhip fractures, minority populations, or men. Accordingly, the 1995 total direct medical expenditures for the treatment of osteoporotic fractures were estimated for all persons aged 45 years or older in the United States by age group, sex, race, type of fracture, and site of service (inpatient hospital, nursing home, and outpatient). Osteoporosis attribution probabilities were used to estimate the proportion of health service utilization and expenditures for fractures that resulted from osteoporosis. Health care expenditures attributable to osteoporotic fractures in 1995 were estimated at $13.8 billion, of which $10.3 billion (75.1%) was for the treatment of white women, $2.5 billion (18.4%) for white men, $0.7 billion (5.3%) for nonwhite women, and $0.2 billion (1.3%) for nonwhite men. Although the majority of U.S. health care expenditures for the treatment of osteoporotic fractures were for white women, one-fourth of the total was borne by other population subgroups. By site-of-service, $8.6 billion (62.4%) was spent for inpatient care, $3.9 billion (28.2%) for nursing home care, and $1.3 billion (9.4%) for outpatient services. Importantly, fractures at skeletal sites other than the hip accounted for 36.9% of the total attributed health care expenditures nationally. The contribution of nonhip fractures to the substantial morbidity and expenditures associated with osteoporosis has been underestimated by previous researchers.

Osteoporosis: the need for comprehensive treatment guidelines

Osteoporosis is a debilitating disease that results in nearly 1.3 million fractures per year in the United States. The cost of treating these fractures has been estimated to be as high as $10 billion per year. These costs are expected to more than double during the next 50 years unless comprehensive programs of prevention and treatment are initiated. Both pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic interventions (eg, diet and exercise) have been shown to have a significant impact on the incidence of osteoporosis, depending on the time of their application. Unfortunately, osteoporosis is often not diagnosed until after fractures have occurred, when it may be too late for treatment to have a major impact. To be most effective, therapy should be started early, before serious bone loss has occurred. Because of its efficacy and relatively low acquisition cost, long-term hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is considered first-line pharmacologic therapy for the prevention of osteoporosis. However, for various reasons, less than 25% of US women who might benefit from HRT are receiving it. Aside from HRT, the only other products approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of osteoporosis are salmon calcitonin and alendronate. Several other agents are under development, including sustained-release fluoride and other products in the bisphosphonate class. The development and adoption of early detection programs and treatment guidelines are crucial to help ease the economic burden of osteoporosis. These guidelines should incorporate preventive measures such as diet and exercise, risk assessment through proper screening programs, and the appropriate use of pharmaceutical products. The purpose of this paper is to discuss relevant economic issues associated with osteoporosis and discuss the need for a management algorithm that could be used to more efficiently prevent and treat this disease. We conclude that further modeling is needed to determine which programs and treatments are most cost-effective within each at-risk subgroup. As clinicians better understand the need for preventive care and the advantages of the various pharmacologic therapies, patients with osteoporosis will receive higher-quality and more efficient medical care.

Direct clinical and welfare costs of osteoporotic fractures in elderly men and women.

Osteoporosis is an increasing health care problem in all aging populations, but overall direct costs associated with the total fracture burden of osteoporosis remain uncertain. We have examined direct costs associated with 151 osteoporotic fractures occurring between 1989 and 1992 in a large cohort of elderly men and women followed prospectively as part of the Dubbo Osteoporosis Epidemiology Study. The median cost of hospital treated fractures was $A10,511 per fracture and for fractures treated on an outpatient basis $A455 in 1992 Australian dollars. Femoral neck fractures were the most expensive fractures ($15,984 median cost). There was no significant difference in costs between men and women for either hospital- or outpatient-treated fractures. Rehabilitation hospital costs comprised the largest proportion of costs (49%) for hospital-treated fractures. Community services comprised the major cost (40%) of outpatient-treated fractures. Univariate predictors of costs were quadriceps strength and bone density, although multivariate analysis showed quadriceps strength to be the best overall predictor of costs. The predicted annual treatment costs in Australia for atraumatic fractures occurring in subjects > or = 60 years was $A779 million or approximately $A44 million per million of population per annum. Estimated total osteoporotic fracture-related costs for the Australian population were much higher than previously reported. The majority of direct costs (95%) were incurred by hospitalized patients and related to hospital and rehabilitation costs. Extrapolation of these data suggests that the direct costs for hip fracture alone will increase approximately twofold in most Western countries by 2025. Improving the cost-effectiveness of treating osteoporotic fractures should involve reduced hospitalization and/or greater efficiency in community rehabilitation services. The costs of various approaches to osteoporosis prevention must be placed into the context of these direct costs and prevention should target men as well as women.