Burden Of Climate Change Research Articles

Positive Externalities of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation for Human Health: A Review and Conceptual Framework for Public Health Research.

Anthropogenic climate change is adversely impacting people and contributing to suffering and increased costs from climate-related diseases and injuries. In responding to this urgent and growing public health crisis, mitigation strategies are in place to reduce future greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) while adaptation strategies exist to reduce and/or alleviate the adverse effects of climate change by increasing systems’ resilience to future impacts. While these strategies have numerous positive benefits on climate change itself, they also often have other positive externalities or health co-benefits. This knowledge can be harnessed to promote and improve global public health, particularly for the most vulnerable populations. Previous conceptual models in mitigation and adaptation studies such as the shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) considered health in the thinking, but health outcomes were not their primary intention. Additionally, existing guidance documents such as the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidance for Climate Resilient and Environmentally Sustainable Health Care Facilities is designed primarily for public health professionals or healthcare managers in hospital settings with a primary focus on resilience. However, a detailed cross sectoral and multidisciplinary conceptual framework, which links mitigation and adaptation strategies with health outcomes as a primary end point, has not yet been developed to guide research in this area. In this paper, we briefly summarize the burden of climate change on global public health, describe important mitigation and adaptation strategies, and present key health benefits by giving context specific examples from high, middle, and low-income settings. We then provide a conceptual framework to inform future global public health research and preparedness across sectors and disciplines and outline key stakeholders recommendations in promoting climate resilient systems and advancing health equity.

Gender Inequality in the Global Warming Era: The Disparate Impact of Climate Change on Female

The climate change crisis has gained unprecedented urgency in the most recent decade. Overall, climate change has already led to and will continuously lead to environmental tipping points and irreversible lock-ins that will decrease the common welfare. When taking a closer look at the macroeconomic growth prospects as measured in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per country, a changing climate will affect countries differently, when considering different mean temperatures but also differences in the GDP sector composition per country and a differing peak temperature per GDP sector for optimal production levels. Within society, climate change has a disparate impact of sustainability on female. Female are traditionally the household caretakers who face a disproportional burden of sustainability pledges. As economic gains and losses from a warming earth are distributed unequally within society, ethical imperatives lead to the pledge to redistribute economic opportunities due to climate change to parts of society that lose from global warming in the quest for climate justice. While between countries but also over generations’ differences in climate change gains and losses lead to unique and unprecedented tax-and-bonds climate change gains and losses distribution strategies, climate justice fairness within society will require novel ways of measuring, monitoring and distributing gains and burdens’ distribution strategies, also between household members. The regular redistribution mechanisms of taxation, as used between countries or consumers, and climate bonds with diversified interest rates and maturity yield regimes, as a rebalancing between generations, needs to be extended on the gender imbalance and family or community level. The novel policy recommendation of this chapter calls for more interpersonal research on climate change burden sharing and socio-psychological mechanisms such as trust, future orientation, compassion and social responsibility – all powerful female attributes that can drive climate leadership-in-action. We will need redistribution mechanisms that are more diversified than monetary redistribution to shift and balance gender interactions that have gotten skewed due to climate change. Areas of concern are disparate impacts of Zero Waste strategies on women as household caretakers but also the long-term burden the novel Coronavirus crisis has on women, who are particularly prone to develop long-term disability as COVID-19 Long Haulers. Addressing all the mentioned areas of concern in future public policymaking will ensure to share the burden but also the benefits of climate change within the most granular micro-level of society where it seems to matter at most for the individual.

Climate change worsens global inequity in maternal nutrition

Climate change worsens global inequity in maternal nutrition

Beyond the Precautionary Principle: Climate Justice Transfers and the Behavioral Green New Deal

We live in the time beyond the precautionary principle. A precautionary approach to innovations is taken with respect for the potential for causing harm when extensive scientific knowledge on a matter is lacking. It emphasizes caution before leaping into new endeavors that may prove harmful or disastrous. In the age of climate change, the precautionary approach is currently melting for two trends: First, the incentivization and redistribution of climate change gains and losses. Second, the Green New Deal emphasizing to steer green market action as an economic driver with respect for ecologic potentials. This chapter addresses first climate justice based on climate gains and losses redistribution to then introduce the potential of the Green New Deal to steer positive change and action beyond the precautionary approach. The Mapping Climate Justice proposes a 3-dimensional climate justice approach to share economics benefits and the burden of climate change right, just and fair around the globe. Scientific data is grounded by ethical imperatives that argue for a pre-precautionary principle based on Rawls’ veil of ignorance and Kant’s categorical imperative.Empirically, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) gains and losses of a warming globe are captured to be distributed unequal around the world. The ethical climatorial imperative demands for an equalization of the gains of climate change around the globe in order to offset for losses incurred due to climate change (Kant, 1783/1993; Puaschunder, 2017b, c; Rawls, 1971).First, climate justice within a country should pay tribute to the fact that low- and high-income households carry the same burden proportional to their dispensable income, for instance, enabled through a progressive carbon taxation, consumption tax to curb harmful behavior and/or corporate inheritance tax to reap benefits of past wealth accumulation that may have offset climate change (Puaschunder, 2017c). Secondly, fair climate change burden sharing between countries ensures those countries benefiting more from a warmer environment also bear a higher responsibility regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts (Puaschunder, 2020). Thirdly, climate justice over time is proposed in an innovative bonds climate change burden sharing strategy (Puaschunder, 2016a). All these recommendations are aimed at ensuring to share the burden but also the benefits of climate change within society in an economically efficient, legally equitable and practically feasible way now and also between generations.

Climate change adaptation and inequality in Africa: Case of water, energy and food insecurity

In this paper we analyze the relationship between social inequality and climate change policy actions in African countries. We examine whether the needs of the poor influence mitigation and adaptation policies in the region. The continent is characterized by an interesting dynamic between inequality and climate change: it is predicted to disproportionately bear the effects of climate change, at the same time that it accounts for four out of the top five countries with the starkest inequality globally. In our analysis, we construct a statistical measure of social inequality for a group of 54 African countries and use the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) to obtain corresponding data on mitigation and adaptation policy actions. We then estimate the intensity of the responsiveness of the latter to the former. Using fractional regression and data imputation methods, we find a statistically significant negative relationship between social inequality and climate change policy actions in Africa. Across African countries, mitigation and adaptation actions fall by about 23% for every 1% rise in social inequality. African countries are therefore not responding to climate change threats in ways that simultaneously reduce social inequality and adapt to climate change. Furthermore, there is some evidence that countries emitting more pollutants are less likely to take action to address climate change. Our results imply that in order to address differences in the burden of climate change in Africa, a re-evaluation of current policy actions is warranted.

Climate Change and Childhood Respiratory Health: A Call to Action for Paediatricians.

Climate change (CC) is one of the main contributors to health emergencies worldwide. CC appears to be closely interrelated with air pollution, as some pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and black carbon are naturally occurring greenhouse gases. Air pollution may enhance the allergenicity of some plants and, also, has an adverse effect on respiratory health. Children are a uniquely vulnerable group that suffers disproportionately from CC burden. The increasing global warming related to CC has a big impact on plants’ lifecycles, with earlier and longer pollen seasons, as well as higher pollen production, putting children affected by asthma and allergic rhinitis at risk for exacerbations. Extreme weather events may play a role too, not only in the exacerbations of allergic respiratory diseases but, also, in favouring respiratory infections. Even though paediatricians are already seeing the impacts of CC on their patients, their knowledge about CC-related health outcomes with specific regards to children’s respiratory health is incomplete. This advocates for paediatricians’ increased awareness and a better understanding of the CC impact on children’s respiratory health. Having a special responsibility for children, paediatricians should actively be involved in policies aimed to protect the next generation from CC-related adverse health effects. Hence, there is an urgent need for them to take action and successfully educate families about CC issues. This paper aims at reviewing the evidence of CC-related environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, rainfall and extreme events on respiratory allergic diseases and respiratory infections in children and proposing specific actionable items for paediatricians to deal with CC-related health issues in their clinical practice.

Projections of temperature-related cause-specific mortality under climate change scenarios in a coastal city of China

BackgroundNumerous studies have been conducted to project temperature-related mortality under climate change scenarios. However, most of the previous evidence has been limited to the total or non-accidental mortality, resulting in insufficient knowledge on the influence of climate change on different types of disease. ObjectivesWe aimed to project future temperature impact on mortality from 16 causes under multiple climate change models in a coastal city of China. MethodsWe first estimated the baseline exposure-response relationships between daily average temperature and cause-specific mortality during 2009–2018. Then, we acquired downscaled future temperature projections from 28 general circulation models (GCMs) under two Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). Finally, we combined these exposure-response associations with projected temperature to estimate the change in the temperature-related death burden in different future decades in comparison to the 2010 s, assuming no demographic changes and population acclimatization. ResultsWe found a consistently decreasing trend in cold-related mortality but a steep rise in heat-related mortality among 16 causes under climate change scenarios. Compared with the 2010 s, the net change in the fraction of total mortality attributable to temperature are projected to −0.54% (95% eCI: −1.69% to 0.71%) and −0.38% (95% eCI: −2.73% to 2.12%) at the end of the 21st century under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, respectively. However, the magnitude of future cold and heat effects varied by different causes of death. A net reduction of future temperature-related death burden was observed among 10 out of 15 causes, with estimates ranging from −5.02% (95% eCI: −17.42% to 2.50%) in mental disorders to −1.01% (95% eCI: −5.56% to 3.28%) in chronic lower respiratory disease. Conversely, the rest diseases are projected to experience a potential net increase of temperature-related death burden, with estimates ranging from 0.44% (95% eCI: −4.40% to 6.02%) in ischemic heart disease and 4.80% (95% eCI: −0.04% to 9.84%) in external causes. ConclusionsOur study indicates that the mortality burden of climate change varied greatly by the mortality categories. Further investigations are warranted to comprehensively understand the impacts of climate change on different types of disease across various regions.

Projections of Ambient Temperature- and Air Pollution-Related Mortality Burden Under Combined Climate Change and Population Aging Scenarios: a Review

Climate change will affect mortality associated with both ambient temperature and air pollution. Because older adults have elevated vulnerability to both non-optimal ambient temperature (heat and cold) and air pollution, population aging can amplify future population vulnerability to these stressors through increasing the number of vulnerable older adults. We aimed to review recent evidence on projections of temperature- or air pollution-related mortality burden (i.e., number of deaths) under combined climate change and population aging scenarios, with a focus on evaluating the role of population aging in assessing these health impacts of climate change. We included studies published between 2014 and 2019 with age-specific population projections. We reviewed 16 temperature projection studies and 15 air pollution projection studies. Nine of the temperature studies and four of the air pollution studies took population aging into account by performing age-stratified analyses that utilized age-specific relationships between temperature or air pollution exposures and mortality (i.e., age-specific exposure-response functions (ERFs)). Population aging amplifies the projected mortality burden of temperature and air pollution under a warming climate. Compared with a constant population scenario, population aging scenarios lead to less reduction or even increases in cold-related mortality burden, resulting in substantial net increases in future overall (heat and cold) temperature-related mortality burden. There is strong evidence suggesting that to accurately assess the future temperature- and air pollution-related mortality burden of climate change, investigators need to account for the amplifying effect of population aging. Thus, all future studies should incorporate age-specific population size projections and age-specific ERFs into their analyses. These studies would benefit from refinement of age-specific ERF estimates.

No Brainer, Tackle Climate Change by 2030 or Await the Doomsday by 2100

Vulnerability to climate change is the greatest challenge in the 21st century. Scientists agree with high confidence that global warming (+0.8-1.0 °C since 1900s) is directly linked to a fast acceleration of human activities in advanced nations and the increased burning of fossil fuels for energy and industrial processes, which resulted in a massive concentration of CO2 and other more potent GHGs in the atmosphere. As of 2017, China as the largest emitter released 10,877 MtCO₂e which was almost one-third of the world’s total GHG emissions of 37,077 MtCO₂e; furthermore, China’s emissions were more than the aggregate emissions of 185 countries. If the governments of industrialized economies and oil/gas producers put their political differences aside and agree on policy reforms to mitigate risks of global warming by 2030, climate change can cost economies worldwide up to $5 trillion by 2050 and $50 trillion by 2100. Rising sea levels, acceleration in melting of glaciers, thinning polar ice, shrinking and breaking off arctic ice, devastating massive floods, and the deadliest bushfires in recent memory are an incontrovertible evidence of a planetary-scale warming. There is enormous social injustice; while five largest GHG emitter countries (China, US, India, Russia, and Japan) account for 58.3% of the total global emissions and still enjoy high standards of living, the most vulnerable poor living in 200 countries bear the burden of climate change even though they contribute the least to its causes. To achieve win-win policies which are necessary for climate (carbon) stabilization as well as a sustainable global economic development path, governments collectively must do the following; phase out coal by no later than 2040; promote energy efficiency as top priority; remove all energy subsidies; establish new funds to assist the least developed and developing countries in their efforts to reduce GHG emissions; and achieve a systems approach to energy.

Well-to-wheels total energy and GHG emissions of HCNG heavy-duty vehicles in China: Case of EEV qualified EURO 5 emissions scenario

Energy security and climate change are critical concerns in the present era. The booming of the vehicle population has worsened the environment and has caused severe air pollution problems, especially in urban areas. The utilization of hydrogen-enriched compressed natural gas in internal combustion engines shows abundant prospects for improved performance and reduced on-road emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. This study aims to provide an insight to well-to-wheels environmental implications of the 20%HCNG fuel mixture in terms of total energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions per megajoules (MJ) of thermal energy output. The well-to-tank (WTT) impacts were evaluated using GREET 1 (2017). GREET 1 is a fuel cycle modeling tool developed by ‘Argonne national laboratory.’ GREET® is extensively used by researchers worldwide to analytically simulate energy use and emission output of various vehicle and fuel combinations. This study uses 12 prospective pathways of gaseous hydrogen production for analysis purposes. In the tank-to-wheels (TTW) phase, the 20%HCNG@EEV reduces the brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) by approximately 5%, and also decreases GHG emissions by 14% compared with 0%HCNG@EURO3. For simplicity, EURO5 is entitled as ‘EEV’ and has been excluded in most of the discussion, only highlighting ‘EEV,’ which abbreviates as ‘Enhanced Environmentally friendly Vehicles.’ For the entire well-to-wheels phase, this research work shows that all of the 20%HCNG@EEV pathways have lower total energy use and GHG emissions than 0%HCNG@EURO3 except the two pathways, such as grid electricity-to-hydrogen (without CO2 sequestration) and coal gasification-to-hydrogen (without CO2 sequestration). The WTW total energy and GHG emissions reduced by approximately 14% and 13%, respectively, with 20%HCNG@EEV based on the coke oven gas pathway compared with 0%HCNG@EURO3. It is essential to note that the use of cleaner feedstock for hydrogen, such as power-to-gas (P2G), biomass, coke oven gas (by-product), and natural gas shows tremendous prospects for realizing and practicing sustainable ‘hydrogen economy’ in China. Further technological advancement and reduction in total costs of HCNG utilization in powertrains will increase the number of HCNG vehicles decreasing the burden of air pollution, climate change, and energy crisis threats.

Voting with Their Sandals: Partisan Residential Sorting on Climate Change Risk

Climate change partisanship is reflected in residential choice. Comparing individual occupants at properties in the same zip code with similar elevation and proximity to the coast, registered republicans (democrats) are more (less) likely than independents to own houses exposed to sea level rise (SLR). Findings are unchanged controlling flexibly for other individual demographics and a variety of granular property characteristics, including the value of the home. This sorting is driven by differential perceptions of long-run SLR risks across the political spectrum not tolerance for current flood risk or preferences for correlated coastal amenities. Observed residential sorting manifests among owners regardless of occupancy, but not among renters. We also find no residential sorting in relation to storm surge exposure, which is a primary driver of current flood risk. Anticipatory sorting on climate change informs models of migration in the face of long-run risks and suggests households that are most likely to vote against climate friendly policies and least likely to adapt may ultimately bear the burden of climate change.

Global Leadership and Followership on Climate Justice

Climate Justice requires global leadership and followership to share economics benefits and the burden of climate change right, just and fair around the globe. Theoretical foundations and macroeconomic modelling are justified and grounded on ethical imperatives. Building on the categorical imperative (Kant, 1783/1993) to only engage in actions one would want to have incurred onto onself and Rawls (1971) veil of ignorance to evaluate ethical dilemmas without considering if one is on the benefitting or suffering edge of the implications, the ethical climatorial imperative demands for an equalization of the gains of climate change around the globe in order to offset for climate change losses (Puaschunder, 2017). Today’s climate stability leadership will determine the following generations’ living conditions. Based on the Athenian city state oath of to leave a city not only not less but greater and more beautiful than it was found, the current generation is in the lead of improving the climate stabilization for future generations to come. The global leadership and followership model thereby introduces climate justice within society, between countries and over time. This novel global leadership and followership analysis of climate gains and losses determining global warming leaders and followers based on ethical imperatives is an innovative climate justice approaches to implement climate stabilization financialization in order to aid global governance policy makers to efficiently herald climate justice in the 21st century. First, climate justice within a country should pay tribute to the fact that low- and high-income households carry the same burden proportional to their dispensable income, for instance, enabled through a progressive carbon taxation, consumption tax to curb harmful behavior and/or corporate inheritance tax to reap benefits of past wealth accumulation that may have offset climate change. Secondly, fair climate change burden sharing between countries ensures those countries benefiting from a warmer environment also bear a higher responsibility regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. Macroeconomic modeling of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) change prospects in the wake of global warming reveal climate winners and losers. Based on the starting mean climate temperatures and GDP compositions of each country in the world as well as climate change temperature projections in the future and temperature peak conditions for GDP production; climate change gains and losses outlined helps find ways how to share the benefits and burdens of global warming in a fair way around the world. Thirdly, climate justice over time is proposed in an innovative tax-and-bonds climate change burden sharing strategy in order to share the burdens and benefits of a warming globe equally between generations. All these recommendations are aimed at ensuring to share the climate change benefits and burdens within society in an economically efficient, legally equitable and practically feasible way now and also between generations.

Assessment of climate change impacts on environmental sustainability in Afghanistan

Climate change is a global phenomenon that became one of the most predominant environmental challenges facing our world today. Natural events and anthropogenic activities are responsible for increasing the negative impacts and risks associated with climate change. Developing countries in Asia and Africa are bearing much of the climate change burden due to rapid population growth, crop failures, and lack of required technological and financial resources to mitigate the risks. Afghanistan, like other developing countries, is highly vulnerable to the severe impacts of climate change. In Afghanistan, climate change is related to various adverse effects on water resources, agriculture, forests, biodiversity, increasing temperature, and changing the environmental landscape. This paper analyses the impact of climate change on environmental sustainability in Afghanistan.

Top-Down Climate Control

Climate justice accounts for the most challenging global governance goal. In the current post-COP21 Paris agreement climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts, the financialization of the ambitious goals has leveraged into a blatant demand. Top down climate control proposes a model to distribute the benefits of a warming earth in a fair way based on which countries are losing and which countries are winning from a warming earth until 2100. A macroeconomic cost-benefit analysis thereby aids to find the optimum solution on how to distribute climate change benefits and burden within society. When unidimensionally focusing on estimated GDP growth given a warmer temperature, over all calculated models assuming linear, prospect or hyperbolic gains and losses, the world will be gaining more than losing from a warming earth until 2100. Based on the WL index of 188 countries of the world, less countries (n=78) will gain more from global warming until 2100 than more countries (n=111) will lose from a warming earth. Based on the overall 〖WL〗_TT index factored by GDP per inhabitant, global warming benefits are demanded to be redistributed in a fair way to offset the costs of climate change loser countries for climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts and to instigate a transition into renewable energy. Adding onto contemporary climate fund raising strategies ranging from emissions trading schemes (ETS) and carbon tax policies as well as financing climate justice through bonds as viable mitigation and adaptation strategies, climate justice is introduced to comprise of fairness between countries but also over generations in a unique and unprecedented tax-and-bonds climate change gains and losses distribution strategy. Climate change winning countries are advised to use taxation to raise revenues to offset the losses incurred by climate change. Climate change losers could raise revenues by issuing bonds that have to be paid back by taxing future generations. Regarding taxation, within the winning countries, foremost the gaining GDP sectors should be taxed. Climate justice within a country should also pay tribute to the fact that low- and high income households share the same burden proportional to their dispensable income, for instance enabled through a progressive carbon taxation. Those who caused climate change could be regulated to bear a higher cost through carbon tax in combination with retroactive billing through inheritance tax to map benefits from past wealth accumulation that potentially contributed to global warming. Deriving respective policy recommendations for the wider climate change community in the discussion of the results is aimed at ensuring to share the burden but also the benefits of climate change within society in an economically efficient, legally equitable and practically feasible way.

Environmental Justice from a Political Science Perspective

Mapping Climate Justice proposes a 3-dimensional environmental justice approach to share economic benefits and the burden of climate change right, just and fair around the globe. Scientific data is backed by ethical imperatives. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) gains and losses of a warming globe are captured to be distributed unequal around the world. The ethical climatorial imperative demands for an equalization of the gains of climate change around the globe in order to offset losses incurred due to climate change (Kant, 1783/1993; Puaschunder, 2017b, c; Rawls, 1971). First, climate justice within a country should pay tribute to the fact that low- and high-income households carry the same burden proportional to their disposable income, for instance, enabled through a progressive carbon taxation, consumption tax to curb harmful behavior and/or corporate inheritance tax to reap benefits of past wealth accumulation that may have caused climate change (Puaschunder, 2017c). Secondly, fair climate change change burden sharing between countries ensures those countries benefiting more from a warmer environment also bear a higher responsibility regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts (Puaschunder, 2019). Thirdly, climate justice over time is proposed in an innovative climate change burden sharing bonds strategy, which distributes the benefits and burdens of a warming earth Pareto-optimal among generations (Puaschunder, 2016a). All these recommendations are aimed at sharing the burden but also the benefits of climate change within society in an economically efficient, legally equitable and practically feasible way now and also between generations. Future Climate Wealth of Nations is derived from climate flexibility defined as the range of temperature variation of a country. In a changing climate, temperature range flexibility is portrayed as a future asset for production flexibility and international trade of commodities leading to comparative advantages of countries. A broad spectrum of climate zones has never been defined as asset and comparative edge in free trade. But future climate change will require territories being more flexible in terms of changing economic production possibilities on a warming globe. The more climate variation a nation state possesses, this novel project argues, the more degrees of freedom a country has in terms of GDP production capabilities in a changing climate. Modeling and empirical validation: These preliminary insights aid in answering what commodity prices, financial flows and trade patterns we can expect given predictions the earth will become hotter. Climate variation based on cyclical changes or climate zones will become subject to scrutiny for associations with climate-based advantages and risks. Economic modeling, cross-sectional world country comparisons, time series and panel regressions will scrutinize temperature data in relation to production in order to derive inferences for future Climate Wealth of Nations. Already now, the degree of climate flexibility is found to be related to human migration inflows. The previously defined climate change winner and loser index is blended with the novel insights on climate flexibility, leading to an unprecedented outlook on future Climate Wealth of Nations in a climate changing world. Lastly, future climate change induced market changes are planned to be derived from scarcity of agriculture production. Individual commodities price distributions will become the foundation for commodity price expectation estimates in the environmental domain back-tested on actual data. In honor of Natasha Chichilnisky-Heal, special attention will be paid to the role international institutions play to alleviate anti-corruption in commodity pricing and trade wars.

Meeting a global temperature goal of 1.5 degC

Meeting a global temperature goal of 1.5 degC

The impact of climate variability on infectious disease transmission in China: Current knowledge and further directions

BackgroundClimate change may lead to emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases and pose public health challenges to human health and the already overloaded healthcare system. It is therefore important to review current knowledge and identify further directions in China, the largest developing country in the world. MethodsA comprehensive literature review was conducted to examine the relationship between climate variability and infectious disease transmission in China in the new millennium. Literature was identified using the following MeSH terms and keywords: climatic variables [temperature, precipitation, rainfall, humidity, etc.] and infectious disease [viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases]. ResultsFifty-eight articles published from January 1, 2000 to May 30, 2018 were included in the final analysis, including bacterial diarrhea, dengue, malaria, Japanese encephalitis, HFRS, HFMD, Schistosomiasis. Each 1 °C rise may lead to 3.6%–14.8% increase in the incidence of bacillary dysentery disease in south China. A 1 °C rise was corresponded to an increase of 1.8%–5.9% in the weekly notified HFMD cases in west China. Each 1 °C rise of temperature, 1％ rise in relative humidity and one hour rise in sunshine led to an increase of 0.90%, 3.99% and 0.68% in the monthly malaria cases, respectively. Climate change with the increased temperature and irregular patterns of rainfall may affect the pathogen reproduction rate, their spread and geographical distribution, change human behavior and influence the ecology of vectors, and increase the rate of disease transmission in different regions of China. ConclusionExploring relevant adaptation strategies and the health burden of climate change will assist public health authorities to develop an early warning system and protect China's population health, especially in the new 1.5 °C scenario of the newly released IPCC special report.

Governance and Climate Justice

Governance and Mapping Climate Justice proposes a 3-dimensional environmental justice approach to share economic benefits and the burden of climate change right, just and fair around the globe. Scientific data is backed by ethical imperatives. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) gains and losses of a warming globe are captured to be distributed unequal around the world. The ethical climatorial imperative demands for an equalization of the gains of climate change around the globe in order to offset losses incurred due to climate change (Kant, 1783/1993; Puaschunder, 2017b, c; Rawls, 1971). First, climate justice within a country should pay tribute to the fact that low- and high-income households carry the same burden proportional to their disposable income, for instance, enabled through a progressive carbon taxation, consumption tax to curb harmful behavior and/or corporate inheritance tax to reap benefits of past wealth accumulation that may have caused climate change (Puaschunder, 2017c). Secondly, fair climate change change burden sharing between countries ensures those countries benefiting more from a warmer environment also bear a higher responsibility regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts (Puaschunder, forthcoming). Thirdly, climate justice over time is proposed in an innovative climate change burden sharing bonds strategy, which distributes the benefits and burdens of a warming earth Pareto-optimal among generations (Puaschunder, 2016a). All these recommendations are aimed at sharing the burden but also the benefits of climate change within society in an economically efficient, legally equitable and practically feasible way now and also between generations.

Future Climate Wealth of Nations' Winners and Losers

Mapping Climate Justice proposed a 3-dimensional climate justice approach to share the burden of climate change right, just and fair around the globe. First, climate justice within a country should pay tribute to the fact that low- and high-income households carry the same burden proportional to their dispensable income, for instance, enabled through a progressive carbon taxation. Secondly, fair climate change change burden sharing between countries ensures those countries benefiting more from a warmer environment also bear a higher responsibility regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. Thirdly, climate justice over time is proposed in an innovative bonds climate change burden sharing strategy. All these recommendations are aimed at ensuring to share the burden but also the benefits of climate change within society in an economically efficient, legally equitable and practically feasible way. Future wealth of nations is introduced by the concept of climate flexibility defined as the range of temperature variation of a country. In a changing climate, temperature range flexibility is portrayed as a future asset for international trade of commodities but also for production flexibility leading to comparative advantages of countries. A broad spectrum of climate zones has never been defined as asset and comparative edge in free trade but climate change will require territories being more flexible in terms of changing economic production. The more climate variation a nation state possesses, this paper argues, the more degrees of freedom a country has in terms of GDP production capabilities in a differing climate. These preliminary insights aid in answering what financial patterns can we expect given predictions the earth will become hotter. Already now, the degree of climate flexibility is found to be related to human migration inflow and is predicted to determine future climate wealth of nations in a climate changing world. The previously defined climate change winner and loser index will be blended with the novel insights on climate flexibility, leading to an unprecedented outlook on future climate wealth of nations. Lastly, future climate change induced market changes are pegged to scarcity of agriculture production and a prospect of commodity price spikes is given.

Climate Wealth of Nations

A 3-dimensional climate justice approach introduces to share the benefits and burden of climate change in an economically efficient, legally equitable and practically feasible way around the globe. Climate justice within a country pays tribute to low and high-income households carrying the same burden proportional to their dispensable income through consumption tax, progressive carbon taxation and a corporate inheritance tax. Climate change burden-sharing between countries ensures those countries benefiting more from a warmer environment bear higher responsibility regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation. Climate justice over time is proposed by an innovative bonds climate change burden sharing strategy (Puaschunder, 2018, forthcoming).