Buoyancy Input Research Articles

What Drives the Mean Along‐Shelf Flow in the Northwest Atlantic Coastal Ocean?

AbstractA long‐standing hypothesis is that the steady along‐shelf circulation in the Northwest Atlantic (NWA) coastal ocean is driven by buoyancy input from continental freshwater runoff. However, the forcing from the freshwater runoff has not been adequately evaluated and compared with other potential driving mechanisms. This study investigates the roles of both wind stress and freshwater runoff in driving the mean along‐shelf flow in the NWA coastal ocean and examines other potential drivers using a newly developed high‐resolution regional model with realistic forcing conditions. The results reveal that wind stress has a larger impact than freshwater runoff on the overall mean circulation and along‐shelf sea‐level gradient on the NWA shelf. While the continental freshwater input consistently contributes to the equatorward along‐shelf flow and higher sea level along the coast, wind stress is more effective for the setup of the broad‐scale circulation pattern by driving the along‐shelf flow on the Labrador Shelf and opposing the flow in the Mid‐Atlantic Bight and on the Scotian Shelf. In addition to the local wind and continental runoff, the sub‐Arctic inflow from higher latitude is an essential part of the NWA shelf circulation system. This remote driver directly contributes to the along‐shelf flow and insulates the shelf flow from the Gulf Stream on the southern shelves.

Ice base slope effects on the turbulent ice shelf-ocean boundary current

Abstract Efforts to parameterize ice shelf basal melting within climate models are limited by an incomplete understanding of the influence of ice base slope on the turbulent ice shelf-ocean boundary current (ISOBC). Here we examine the relationship between ice base slope, boundary current dynamics, and melt rate using 3-D, turbulence-permitting large-eddy simulations (LES) of an idealized ice shelf-ocean boundary current forced solely by melt-induced buoyancy. The range of simulated slopes (3-10%) is appropriate to the grounding zone of small Antarctic ice shelves and to the flanks of relatively wide ice base channels, and the initial conditions are representative of warm-cavity ocean conditions. In line with previous studies, the simulations feature the development of an Ekman boundary layer adjacent to the ice, overlaying a broad pycnocline. The time-averaged flow within the pycnocline is in thermal wind balance, with a mean shear that is only weakly dependent on the ice base slope angle α, resulting in a mean gradient Richardson number 〈Rig〉 that decreases approximately linearly with sinα. Combining this inverse relationship with a linear approximation to the density profile, we derive formulations for the friction velocity, thermal forcing, and melt rate in terms of slope angle and total buoyancy input. This theory predicts that melt rate varies like the square root of slope, which is consistent with the LES results and differs from a previously proposed linear trend. The derived scalings provide a potential framework for incorporating slope-dependence into parameterizations of mixing and melting at the base of ice shelves.

The Southern Ocean deep mixing band emerges from a competition between winter buoyancy loss and upper stratification strength

Abstract. The Southern Ocean hosts a winter deep mixing band (DMB) near the Antarctic Circumpolar Current's (ACC) northern boundary, playing a pivotal role in Subantarctic Mode Water formation. Here, we investigate what controls the presence and geographical extent of the DMB. Using observational data, we construct seasonal climatologies of surface buoyancy fluxes, Ekman buoyancy transport, and upper stratification. The strength of the upper-ocean stratification is determined using the columnar buoyancy index, defined as the buoyancy input necessary to produce a 250 m deep mixed layer. It is found that the DMB lies precisely where the autumn–winter buoyancy loss exceeds the columnar buoyancy found in late summer. The buoyancy loss decreases towards the south, while in the north the stratification is too strong to produce deep mixed layers. Although this threshold is also crossed in the Agulhas Current and East Australian Current regions, advection of buoyancy is able to stabilise the stratification. The Ekman buoyancy transport has a secondary impact on the DMB extent due to the compensating effects of temperature and salinity transports on buoyancy. Changes in surface temperature drive spatial variations in the thermal expansion coefficient (TEC). These TEC variations are necessary to explain the limited meridional extent of the DMB. We demonstrate this by comparing buoyancy budgets derived using varying TEC values with those derived using a constant TEC value. Reduced TEC in colder waters leads to decreased winter buoyancy loss south of the DMB, yet substantial heat loss persists. Lower TEC values also weaken the effect of temperature stratification, partially compensating for the effect of buoyancy loss damping. TEC modulation impacts both the DMB characteristics and its meridional extent.

Zonostrophic turbulence in the subsurface oceans of the Jovian and Saturnian moons

In order to characterize the global circulation of the subsurface ocean of Jovian and Saturnian moons, we analyse the properties of 21 three-dimensional simulations of Boussinesq thermal convection in a rapidly rotating spherical shell. Flow is driven by an adverse temperature contrast imposed across the domain, and is subjected to no-slip boundary conditions. We cover a region of parameter space previously unexplored by global simulations, both in terms of rapid rotation and vigour of convective forcing, closer to, yet still admittedly far from, the conditions appropriate for the subsurface ocean of Ganymede, Europa, Enceladus, and Titan. Our most extreme simulations exhibit a dynamic global circulation that combines powerful east–west zonal jets, planetary waves, and vortices. A spectral analysis of the kinetic energy distribution performed in cylindrical geometry reveals a high degree of anisotropy of the simulated flows. Specifically, the axisymmetric zonal energy spectra follow a steep −5 slope in wavenumber space, with the energy amplitude exclusively controlled by the rotation rate. In contrast, the non-axisymmetric residual spectra display a gentle −5/3 slope, with the energy amplitude controlled by the thermal buoyancy input power. This spectral behaviour conforms with the theory of zonostrophic turbulence, as coined by Sukoriansky et al. (2002), and allows us to propose tentative extrapolations of these findings to the more extreme conditions of icy satellites. By assuming that kinetic energy dissipates via Ekman friction at the ice–ocean boundary, we predict an upper bound for the geostrophic zonal velocity ranging from a few centimetres per second for Enceladus to about one metre per second for Ganymede, with residual velocities smaller than the zonal velocity by an order of magnitude on each moon. These predictions yield typical jets size approaching the ocean depth of Titan, Ganymede and Europa and 10 to 40% of the ocean depth on Enceladus.

General solutions of the plume equations: towards synthetic plumes and fountains

Previous mathematical models of quasi-steady turbulent plumes and fountains have described the flow that results from a prescribed input of buoyancy. We offer a new perspective by asking, what input of buoyancy would give rise to a plume, or fountain, with given properties? Addressing this question by means of an analytical framework, we take a first step toward enabling a plume with specific characteristics, i.e. a synthetic plume, to be designed. We develop analytical solutions to the conservation equations that describe four kinds of turbulent flow: axisymmetric plume, starting fountain, line plume and wall plume. Crucially, our solutions do not require the buoyancy distribution to be specified, whether this be the source or off-source distribution. Key to our approach, we specify a function for the volume flux, $Q=f(z)$ , and take advantage of the weak coupling between the conservation equations to uniquely express general solutions in terms of $f$ . We show that any analytic function $f$ can form the basis for a set of solutions for the fluxes, local variables and local Richardson number, though $f/({\rm d}f/{\rm d}z)>0$ is a necessary condition for physically realistic solutions. As an example of plume synthesis, we show that an axisymmetric plume can have an invariant radius if there is an exponentially increasing input of buoyancy to the plume centreline. We also consider how plume synthesis could be achieved practically.

Large-Scale Circulations and Dry Tropical Cyclones in Direct Numerical Simulations of Rotating Rayleigh–Bénard Convection

Abstract The organization of convection into relatively long-lived patterns of large spatial scales, like tropical cyclones, is a common feature of Earth’s atmosphere. However, many key aspects of convective aggregation and its relationship with tropical cyclone formation remain elusive. In this work, we simulate highly idealized setups of dry convection, inspired by the Rayleigh–Bénard system, to probe the effects of different thermal boundary conditions on the scale of organization of rotating convection, and on the formation of tropical cyclone–like structures. We find that in domains with sufficiently high aspect ratios, moderately turbulent (), moderately rotating () convection organizes more persistently and at larger scales when thermal boundary conditions constrain heat fluxes rather than temperatures. Furthermore, for some thermal boundary conditions with asymmetric heat fluxes, convection organizes into persistent vortices with the essential properties of mature tropical cyclones: a warm core, high axisymmetry, a strong azimuthal circulation, and substantially larger size than individual buoyant plumes. We argue that flux asymmetry results in a persistent and localized input of buoyancy, which allows spatially aggregated convection to sustain a warm core in a developing large-scale vortex. Crucially, the most intense and axisymmetric cyclone forms for setups where the bottom heat flux is enhanced by the nearby flow and the top boundary is insulating, as long as the convective Rossby number is higher than about 1. Our results demonstrate the great potential for dialogue between classical turbulence research and the study of convective aggregation and tropical cyclones. Significance Statement On Earth, atmospheric convection frequently organizes into large spatial patterns that persist for several days, like tropical cyclones. However, many aspects of this process of organization and its link to tropical cyclone formation are not fully understood. In this work, we use numerical simulations of simple setups of rotating convection without moisture to study the minimal conditions that produce large-scale convective organization, and the spontaneous formation of tropical cyclone–like structures. We find that the latter form more readily for a particular set of controlling parameters and thermal boundary conditions. Our approach seeks to narrow the disciplinary gap between tropical cyclone physics and traditional turbulence research, by bringing together methods, questions, and results that are of potential interest to both.

Basal melt rates and ocean circulation under the Ryder Glacier ice tongue and their response to climate warming: a high-resolution modelling study

Abstract. The oceanic forcing of basal melt under floating ice shelves in Greenland and Antarctica is one of the major sources of uncertainty in climate ice sheet modelling. We use a high-resolution, nonhydrostatic configuration of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm) to investigate basal melt rates and melt-driven circulation in the Sherard Osborn Fjord under the floating tongue of Ryder Glacier, northwestern Greenland. The control model configuration, based on the first-ever observational survey by Ryder 2019 Expedition, yielded melt rates consistent with independent satellite estimates. A protocol of model sensitivity experiments quantified the response to oceanic thermal forcing due to warming Atlantic Water and to the buoyancy input from the subglacial discharge of surface fresh water. We found that the average basal melt rates show a nonlinear response to oceanic forcing in the lower range of ocean temperatures, while the response becomes indistinguishable from linear for higher ocean temperatures, which unifies the results from previous modelling studies of other marine-terminating glaciers. The melt rate response to subglacial discharge is sublinear, consistent with other studies. The melt rates and circulation below the ice tongue exhibit a spatial pattern that is determined by the ambient density stratification.

Why Is Seasonal Density Stratification in Shelf Seas Expected to Increase Under Future Climate Change?

AbstractCoastal and shelf seas provide a diverse range of ecosystem services, which are often mediated by seasonal density stratification through its control on biogeochemical cycles. These seas are highly vulnerable to climate change and downscaling studies consistently project an increase in seasonal stratification over the next century, but without a clear explanation. Here we revisit a well‐established theory of coastal ocean mixing and demonstrate with a new ensemble of downscaled simulations for the Northwest European continental shelf seas to 2100 that the increase of expansivity with temperature is sufficient to consistently increase the seasonal stratification. Where there is a closed balance between buoyancy input and mixing, small changes in expansivity are amplified to a large relative change in stratification. This simple link between global heating and stratification substantially reduces uncertainty in projections of this key parameter in seas around the world.

Separation of the Icelandic Coastal Current from the Reykjanes Peninsula

The Icelandic Coastal Current (ICC) is a buoyant flow fueled by multiple rivers. Satellite observations during the October–November 2019 study period indicate the ICC often separates from the southwest tip of the Reykjanes Peninsula; it subsequently has large offshore excursion during west-southwestward winds. Results from a high-resolution realistic simulation exhibit this ICC behavior and provide detail on the associated currents and salinities. Sensitivity tests with simplified bathymetry, no winds, or no local buoyancy inputs are compared to the standard run to isolate contributions of those factors to flow separation. Analysis indicates that ICC separation occurs because the coast turns more tightly than the inertial radius; this behavior is consistent with inviscid theory. Partial flow deflection over the shelf expression of the Reykjanes Ridge and the widening shelf both increase ICC offshore excursion. The ICC is strongly influenced by the barotropic wind response to west-southwestward winds that includes a downshelf jet (flowing in the direction of Kelvin wave propagation) along the coast upshelf of the peninsula's tip where winds are downwelling-favorable, the downshelf extension of the jet that bends around the peninsula and progresses farther offshore with isobaths, a band of offshore and upshelf currents along the coast downshelf of the peninsula's tip, and surface flow aligned with Ekman transport located offshore beyond the downshelf jet. Similar wind-influence scenarios are discussed for other plumes. There are likely many such hotspots for offshore freshwater transport around the world.

Plume-to-plume interactions in the Pearl River Delta in winter

River plumes are important carriers of terrigenous materials being transported into coastal seas. Previous studies of river plumes focused on large and single river plumes and paid less attention to the plume-to-plume interactions among the small river plumes. In this study, we used the ROMS (Regional Ocean Modeling System) model to study the plume-to-plume interactions in the Pearl River Delta area during wintertime, when the river discharge is relatively low and downwelling-favorable winds prevail. During the wintertime, the river plumes inside the Pearl River Estuary are well developed, and their interactions are extensive. Both the downstream and upstream plumes affect each other, and the interactions include both barotropic and baroclinic effects. The barotropic effects of a sub-plume could repel or suppress the spread of other plumes into its territory, but with limited spatial coverage. The baroclinic effect (buoyancy input) could alter salinity stratification, generate current fields, and greatly influence the dispersal of other sub-plumes over a broader spatial extent. The river plumes in the Pearl River estuary further affect the dispersal of waterborne materials in the downstream Modaomen estuary. Our results have distinct implications for regional environmental management.

Nonlinear internal waves and plumes generated in response to sea‐loch outflow, AUV, and time‐lapse photography observations

AbstractThe tidally modulated outflow of brackish water from a sea loch forms a thin surface layer that propagates into the coastal ocean as a buoyant gravity current, transporting nutrients and sediments, as well as fresh water, heat and momentum. The fresh intrusion both propagates into and generates a strongly stratified environment which supports trains of nonlinear internal waves (NLIWs). NLIWs are shown to propagate ahead of this buoyancy input in response to propagation of the outflow water into the stratified environment generated by the previous release as well as in the opposing direction after the reflection from steep bathymetry. Oblique aerial photographs were taken and photogrammetric rectification led to the identification of the buoyant intrusion and the subsequent generation of NLIWs. An autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) was deployed on repeated reciprocal transects in order to make simultaneous CTD, ADCP, and microstructure shear measurements of the evolution of these phenomena in conjunction with conventional mooring measurements. AUV‐based temperature and salinity signals of NLIWs of depression were observed together with increased turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates of over 2 orders of magnitude within and in the wake of the NLIWs. Repeated measurements allow a unique opportunity to investigate the horizontal structure of these phenomena. Simple metric scaling demonstrates that these processes are likely to be feature of many fjordic systems located on the west coast of Scotland but may also play a key role in the assimilation of the outflow from many tidally dominated fjordic systems throughout the world.

Arctic Ocean stability: The effects of local cooling, oceanic heat transport, freshwater input, and sea ice melt with special emphasis on the Nansen Basin

AbstractThe Arctic loses energy to space and heat is transported northward in the atmosphere and ocean. The largest transport occurs in the atmosphere. The oceanic heat flux is significantly smaller, and the warm water that enters the Arctic Ocean becomes covered by a low‐salinity surface layer, which reduces the heat transfer to the sea surface. This upper layer has two distinct regimes. In most of the deep basins it is due to the input of low‐salinity shelf water, ultimately conditioned by net precipitation and river runoff. The Nansen Basin is different. Here warm Atlantic water is initially in direct contact with and melts sea ice, its upper part being transformed into less dense surface water. The characteristics and depth of this layer are determined as functions of the temperature of the Atlantic water and for different energy losses using a one‐dimensional energy balance model. The amount of transformed Atlantic water is estimated for two different sea ice melt rates and the assumption of a buoyant boundary outflow. To create the upper layer sea ice formed elsewhere has to drift to the Nansen Basin. With reduced ice cover, this ice drift might weaken and the ice could disappear by the end of winter. The surface buoyancy input would disappear, and the upper layer might eventually convect back into the Atlantic water, reducing the formation of less dense Polar water. The created ice‐free areas would release more heat to the atmosphere and affect the atmospheric circulation.

Effect of the radial buoyancy on a circular Couette flow

The effect of a radial temperature gradient on the stability of a circular Couette flow is investigated when the gravitational acceleration is neglected. The induced radial stratification of the fluid density coupled with the centrifugal acceleration generates radial buoyancy which is centrifugal for inward heating and centripetal for outward heating. This radial buoyancy modifies the Rayleigh discriminant and induces the asymmetry between inward heating and outward heating in flow behavior. The critical modes are axisymmetric and stationary for inward heating while for outward heating, they can be oscillatory axisymmetric or nonaxisymmetric depending on fluid diffusion properties, i.e., on the Prandtl number Pr. The dependence of the critical modes on Pr is explored for different values of the radius ratio of the annulus. The power input of the radial buoyancy is compared with other power terms. The critical frequency of the oscillatory axisymmetric modes is linked to the Brunt-Väisälä frequency due to the density stratification in the radial gravity field induced by the rotation. These modes are associated with inertial waves. The dispersion relation of the oscillatory axisymmetric modes is derived in the vicinity of the critical conditions. A weakly nonlinear amplitude equation with a forcing term is proposed to explain the domination of these axisymmetric oscillatory modes over the stationary centrifugal mode.

Intraseasonal variation in the salinity of the Yellow and East China Seas in the summers of 2011, 2012, and 2013

Hydrographic data obtained during eight cruises in the summers of 2011, 2012, and 2013 reveal a substantial intraseasonal variation in the salinity of the Yellow and East China Seas. Salinity variation reflects changes in the water masses in which jellyfish grow from juveniles to adults and changes in the circulation system that can transport jellyfish. The primary change occurred in surface salinity due to inconstant plume pathways caused by the swerve of the offshore current. Distinctive events occurred in the Yellow Sea in 2012, and also occurred in a zone spanning from the mouth of the Changjiang to Jeju Island in 2013. The observations indicated the advancement and recession of the Taiwan Warm Current (TWC), especially its inner branch and the Kuroshio intrusion, induce substantial variations during summer (June, July and August). Atmospheric forcing, the buoyancy input from rivers, Kuroshio transport and a water level discrepancy between the Bashi Channel and the Taiwan Strait that controls the TWC, influence the circulation regime. The changes in all of the aforementioned forcings need to be recorded to understand the mechanism of the dynamic patterns in water masses, temperature and salinity and predict the characteristics of the jellyfish blooming environment.

Characteristics and dynamics of two major Greenland glacial fjords

Key Points We describe fjord and shelf circulation patterns in two large glacial fjords Time‐dependent, externally driven intermediary circulation dominates both fjords We charactertize these fjords in estuarine parameter space

The influence of the Maputo and Incomati rivers on the mixing and outflow of freshwater from Maputo Bay (Mozambique)

Markull, K., Lencart e Silva, J.D., Simpson, J.H., Dias, J.M., 2014. The influence of the Maputo and Incomati rivers on the mixing and outflow of freshwater from Maputo Bay (Mozambique). In: Green, A.N. and Cooper, J.A.G. (eds.), Proceedings 13 th International Coastal Symposium (Durban, South Africa), Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 70, pp. 580-585, ISSN 0749-0208. Maputo Bay is a tidally-energetic embayment, influenced by strong rainfall and associated river runoff during the wet season. Literature shows that salinity can regulate the nutrient cycle in mangrove estuarine ecosystems affecting the early life stages in these habitats which sustain the economically important shrimp stocks. The freshwater flow into Maputo Bay is for a part controlled by dam systems on its main rivers. In this work we investigate how varying flows from the Incomati and Maputo rivers interact with the tide to influence the evolution of the bay’s salinity field. A 3dimensional hydrodynamic model was applied to Maputo Bay, improving a previously published model through vertical and temporal refinement and recalibration, leading to a more accurate representation of the semidiurnal and fortnightly stratification-mixing cycles occurring during the wet season. However, the model still predicts salinities lower than those found in observations. An analysis showed that uncertainties in the salinity field increased towards the mouth of the Maputo River indicating the uncertainty of the modeled flow at the catchment as a possible cause of the underestimation of salinity in the bay. A set of experiments of varying Maputo and Incomati river flows show that for a flow as frequent as 5 times per year, the buoyancy input and the associated density driven flow contributed less than the tide in forcing the bay-shelf exchange. The inverse is observed for results where a flow with a 5-year return period leads to a more efficient bay-shelf exchange during neap tides than during spring tides. For this scenario, the results suggest that the estuarine plume was arrested inside the bay by tidal stirring during spring tide and released during neap tide when tidal stirring was subdued. The analysis of the separate and joint effects of the two rivers in setting the salinity field in Maputo Bay show a difference in extent of influence area between the rivers. These results suggest that the management of the freshwater inflow from the Maputo River can be crucial for maintaining lower salinities over parts of the bay to sustain the economically important marine resources.

Semidiurnal internal tides in a Patagonian fjord

The fjords of central Chilean Patagonia (47°S) receive fresh water from both precipitation and the Baker River. This buoyancy input generates a two layer hydrographic system characterized by strong salinity stratification (∼30gkg−1 over a depth range of 7–15m), which favors baroclinic conditions in the fjord. Hourly current velocity profiles were collected with an acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) moored at a depth of 40m during March–April 2009, and complemented by 11 CTD profiles and hourly sea level time series. These data allowed the detection of semidiurnal internal tidal waves for the first time in this region. Wavelength and horizontal phase speeds were determined by the dynamical mode 1 for internal waves. Maximum wavelength was 52km, travelling at a horizontal phase speed of ∼1.16ms−1. Wavelet, spectral and empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis techniques applied to the echo anomaly signal and to the baroclinic velocity showed largest semidiurnal amplitudes near the pycnocline. Out of three modes obtained from the EOF analysis, two modes displayed a two- or three-layer flow structure with flow direction reversing at the pycnocline. The semidiurnal internal waves were found as fluctuations near the pycnocline in sporadic packets correlated to high discharge pulses of the Baker River (r2=0.77). Additionally, internal Froude number calculations at the mouth of the Baker River indicated critical flow conditions, which allowed for generation of internal waves at the plume front. These waves are separated from the river plume after internal wave phase speeds surpassed frontal speeds. This suggests that the internal waves were modulated by pulses in high river discharge rather than the interaction of barotropic tide with bathymetry (a sill). An implication of these internal waves would be to increase vertical mixing of nutrients toward the surface, through shear instabilities, which would favor primary production.

A numerical investigation of the dynamics and structure of hyperpycnal river plumes on sloping continental shelves

A 3‐D hydrodynamic model (Regional Ocean Modeling System) is used to investigate the dynamics and structure of hyperpycnal river plumes over sloping continental shelves. The focus is on the plume's response to varying slopes and settling velocities (ws). The idealized model is configured to represent small mountainous river systems during a flood event. A hyperpycnal sediment concentration of 60 g/L is specified at the river mouth such that the sediment–freshwater mixture is denser than the seawater, causing the plumes to traverse the shelves as undercurrents. A realistic range of shelf slope of 0.001–0.03 is chosen. The settling velocity is varied based on river's carrying capacity. The model‐derived velocity profiles and the entrainment rate compare favorably against prior laboratory experiments. Both cross‐shore and alongshore momentum balances are primarily between gravitational forcing and bottom friction. But, the Coriolis deflection is significant at the plume core in the alongshore momentum budget (i.e., Ekman balance). As the slope increases and settling velocity decreases, hyperpycnal plumes transition from depositional to autosuspending regime. An estimate of critical slope governed by a dimensionless parameter (qb is buoyancy input) reasonably captures the regime transition. In the depositional regime, the plume's runout (cross‐shore penetration) scales with advective distance: increasing slopes and discharge enhance the gravitational forcing and plume velocity, leading to an increase in runout. In contrast, increasing settling velocity shortens the vertical settling time, thereby reducing the plume's horizontal footprint. For the range of parameters considered, the runout of depositional plumes is confined within 15 km from the mouth, whereas the penetration of autosuspending plumes is essentially unlimited.

Beaufort shelf break eddies and shelf-basin exchange of Pacific summer water in the western Arctic Ocean detected by satellite and modeling analyses

[1] Mesoscale eddies and shelf-basin exchange of Pacific summer water in the western Arctic Ocean are examined using satellite data sets and an eddy-resolving coupled sea ice–ocean model. Several surface eddy-like features along the Beaufort shelf break are detected by the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sea surface temperature and the Global Imager (GLI) radiance image. The QuikSCAT sea wind vectors indicate that summertime shelf-wide wind is an important factor for interannual variations in the eddy properties. A realistic numerical experiment reveals that the origin of shelf break warm eddies and timing of their generation can be classified into three types. Type I eddies are frequently produced in the vicinity of the Barrow Canyon throughout the summer season by a combination of outflow of Pacific summer water with a low potential vorticity from the Barrow Canyon and lateral velocity shear of the canyon jet. Surface wind variability modulates the timing of generation. Type II and Type III eddies originate from an eastward current along the Beaufort shelf break, although origin depth and background hydrographic structure differ between them. Type II eddies are spawned from the shelf slope at middepth during early summer. Type III eddies are generated from the surface isopycnal front over the shelf break during late summer. The shift from Type II eddies to Type III eddies is caused by surface buoyancy input in the upstream region. A sensitivity experiment using different atmospheric forcing data suggest that the mechanism controlling Pacific water transport from the Chukchi shelf to the Canada Basin differs depending on surface wind fields in the shelf region. The mesoscale eddies primarily induce the shelf-to-basin transport under weak or westerly wind conditions during summer, while wind-driven Ekman transport is a major driver in the easterly wind regime. Year 2003 (2007) corresponds to the former (latter) case.

The coupling between exchange flux through a strait and dynamics in a small convectively driven marginal sea: The Gulf of Aqaba (Gulf of Eilat)

[1] We investigate the coupling between the dynamics in the Gulf of Aqaba (Gulf of Eilat, northern Red Sea) and the exchange flow through the Straits of Tiran in response to seasonally varying surface fluxes and northern Red Sea hydrographic conditions. Because the gulf is a relatively small basin, winter mixing between the surface and intermediate layers occurs over most places in the gulf including in the vicinity of the straits, and leads to a maximal exchange flow in the strait. During the spring, warming in the Red Sea forces an influx of warm Red Sea water into the gulf, the surface layer is refilled, and consequently the exchange flow in the straits changes from a maximal to a submaximal flow regime. As a result, the dense wintertime water formation in the gulf and the exchange flow through the strait are strongly coupled on seasonal time scales. In addition, the hydrographic conditions in the northern Red Sea undergo strong seasonality. These characteristics prevent the direct application of current theories for strait‐marginal sea systems, which commonly assume steady conditions in the “open ocean” side of the strait and/or an annual mean surface flux over the marginal sea. We explain why the exchange of volume and heat between the Gulf of Aqaba (Gulf of Eilat) and the northern Red Sea is larger during spring‐summer despite the net surface buoyancy input into the gulf and why it diminishes during fall‐winter despite the large buoyancy loss to the atmosphere. The applicability of the results to other systems is discussed.