AMONG other things, the civil rights 4 movement has been responsible ?.L for some rethinking concerning the role of economic institutions in American life. Every society depends on the functioning of its institutional forms to give it vitality. If corporations or trade unions, as important institutional forms, fail to cope with the problems that are generated by each new generation, society suffers. In a recent article, Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare John W. Gardner reminds us in very vivid language that every few years the archaeologists unearth another ancient civilization that flourished for a time and then died.' His explanation for this is couched partly in terms of the fact that the institutional forms developed hardening of the arteries and no longer possessed the vigor and flexibility necessary to create an environment for change. The new problems could not be solved with the old approach, and a tenacious clinging to traditional ways proved disastrous. Some reflection on these things is worthwhile for those who go on to evaluate some of the problems on the contemporary industrial racerelations scene. The operation of apprenticeship programs in the building and construction industry has created a great deal of controversy between unions, employers, government agencies, and civil rights groups. A struggle for change has been pursued with traditional ways being challenged. On February 7, 1966, the first injunction requested by the U.S. Department of Justice, pursuant to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 against discrimination in employment, was issued by the U.S. District Court in St. Louis.2 The object of the injunction was the refusal by three building-trades unionsthe International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the United Association of Plumbers and Steamfitters, and the Sheet Metal Workers International Association-to permit Negro building tradesmen to work. At the same time these events were occurring in St. Louis, civil rights organizations were complaining about continued discrimination on the part of these and other buildingtrades unions in such cities as Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia. The persistence of such discrimination as referred to above is noteworthy. In 1963 and 1964, a number of demonstrations, with some resultant riots, were organized in several major cities by civil rights groups at building construction sites. The issue again was alleged discrimination by several building-trades unions against the training and employ*Associate professor of industry, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania. The author acknowledges support from a Ford Foundation faculty research grant in order to prepare this article. He is grateful to Professors Herbert R. Northrup and George W. Taylor for useful criticisms.