Build Direction Research Articles

Effect of heat treatments on strengthening mechanisms in electron beam melted superalloy Inconel 718

Additive manufacturing of Inconel 718 (IN718) has gained significant interest due to its application in various industries such as aerospace and nuclear industry. In the present study, IN718 was fabricated by additive manufacturing using Electron beam melting (EBM). The superalloy was subjected to hot isostatic pressing (HIP) at 1120 °C for 4 h at a pressure of 100 MPa. It was then subjected to two different aging treatments. The standard heat treatment involved a solution treatment (954 °C/1 h), followed by a two step aging (740 °C/8 h + 635 °C/8 h) cycle (HIP + STA). In the second heat treatment, solutionizing (954 °C/1 h), as well as aging (740 °C/4 h + 635 °C/1 h) was carried out inside the hot isostatic press (combined HIP cycle). This leads to shortening of the heat treatment time as well as allows the heat treatment to be done in a single cycle. The investigation of microstructure and mechanical properties of EBM IN718 was carried out for as-built, combined HIP cycle and HIP + STA conditions. All the samples show strong <100> texture along the build direction. The as-built sample shows 0.47 ± 0.3 % defects. No defects were observed in heat treated samples. The volume fraction (%) of the γ″ (Ni3Nb) precipitates in as-built, combined HIP cycle and HIP + STA sample was ∼12%, ∼15% and ∼13% respectively. The contribution by various strengthening mechanisms to the overall yield strength was calculated by considering solid solution, grain boundary, dislocation and precipitation strengthening. The primary contribution to the overall yield strength was by precipitation strengthening. For as-built, combined HIP cycle and HIP + STA samples, the estimated precipitation strengthening contribution was ∼723 MPa, ∼701 MPa and ∼551 MPa, respectively. The difference may be attributed to the volume fraction, aspect ratio and size of the precipitates present. The as-built sample shows a lower experimental yield strength than its theoretical yield strength. This may be attributed to the defects present in the as-built sample. The combined HIP cycle is recommended as it leads to best mechanical properties. Reasons for this are discussed.

Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of ultrafine-grained Al[sbnd]Li alloy fabricated via friction stir additive manufacturing

High-strength laminated blocks of 2060 AlLi alloy were fabricated by friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM) in this study, and a comprehensive analysis of their microstructural evolution and mechanical properties were investigated. The microstructure of the alloy produced by FSAM exhibited ultrafine equiaxed grains ranging from 2 to 5 μm. Dislocation multiplication can be observed after FSAM, which is formed due to plastic deformation. Both the geometrically necessary dislocations density and the proportion of low angle grain boundaries show a decreasing trend from top to bottom. The reprecipitated θ’ and Al6Mn precipitates at grain boundaries was observed, exhibiting a coarsening phenomenon along the building direction. Additionally, the mechanical properties of the FSAM-produced 2060 AlLi alloys were assessed, revealing YS, UTS, and EL values of 290.4 MPa, 443.1 MPa, and 11.06%, respectively. And the microhardness exhibited a range from 110.8HV0.2 to 139.6HV0.2. In summary, this work offers practical guidelines for optimizing the additive manufacturing quality of AlLi alloys.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–Li alloys fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) based wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process is first used to fabricate a thin wall of LA103Z magnesium-lithium alloy. Results indicate that the grain size of the LA103Z thin-walled bottom region significantly differs from that of the middle and top regions. The main phases present in the LA103Z thin wall include α-Mg and β-Li phases, along with some particulate second phases (LiAl, Li2MgAl). Moreover, the thermal action of the subsequent sedimentary layer promotes the transformation of β-Li→α-Mg+β-Li and Li2MgAl →LiAl phase. The mechanical properties of the LA103Z thin wall are affected by a combination of factors such as grain size, the proportion of the α-Mg phase, and morphology. The tensile strength of the LA103Z thin-walled samples in the bottom, middle, and top regions is measured at 195.1 MPa, 181.8 MPa, and 201.4 MPa, respectively, with corresponding elongation percentages of 3.4%, 7.3%, and 12.4%. In the building direction, the tensile strength is recorded as 177.7 MPa, with an elongation percentage of 7%. The study reveals that WAAM-GTAW has the potential to make magnesium-lithium alloys more widely available.

Influence of energy density on the microstructure and property regulation of additive manufactured pure nickel

In this work, laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology was used to fabricate pure nickel components, and the densification behavior and microstructure of pure nickel with different energy densities were investigated. The results indicate that for LPBF-fabricated pure nickel components, the relative density reaches a peak of 98.76% at an energy density of 101 J/mm3. With the increase of energy density, a large number of pores appear inside the grains, and the grains grow epitaxially along the building direction within multiple molten pools, pores gradually disappear after undergoing remelting at the edges of the melting tracks. Among these, competitive inward growth of columnar crystals may be the main cause of dislocations and new grain generation. The grains are primarily distributed along the Ni (111) or Ni (110) orientations, and with the increase of energy density, the grains with these two orientations increase. The surface energy follows the sequence of Ni (220) &gt; Ni (200) &gt; Ni (111). Due to the stacking of the &lt;101&gt; oriented main layer and the &lt;001&gt; oriented sub-layer in the building direction, the sample with higher energy density exhibits a strong Ni {110} texture, accompanied by increased tensile properties.

Regulatory and legal foundations of the national education in Russia in the post-reform period (1860-1917)

The article is devoted to the problem of identifying regional peculiarities of the integral process of formation of normative-legal support for the activity of national education in post-reform Russia. The aim of the article is to present the results of the study of the relationship between the accumulation of organizational and legal knowledge and the applied experience of the implementation of this process at the national and regional levels. Objectives: to characterize the conditions that influenced the formation of normative-legal support for the activity of national schools as an independent direction of nation-state building in the educational system of post-reform Russia. The research was based on the principle of historicism, methods of analysis and comparison, historical-systemic, sociological methods and the method of content analysis. The analysis of the main normative-legal acts that directly or indirectly influenced the national education development demonstrates a rather high professionalism of the developers of the basic ideas of the national policy, which are characterized by external positive motivation. The authors confirmed the hypothesis of the study that in the period under study the normative and legal foundations for the establishment of the national education in Russia were laid, which played a determining role in the birth and development of educational institutions with a national component in Yenisei province. This historical experience was not wasted, but was taken into account in the next attempt to solve the problems of nation-state building and national education in the first decades of Soviet power, which determined the direction and nature of our further research activities from the position of determining the possibility of its use in modern conditions.

Microstructure and magnetic domain structure of additively manufactured Fe–Si soft magnetic alloys with 3 and 9 wt.-% Si

Electrical steels are numerously used in engineering applications. Nowadays, future challenges related to climate change and e-mobility push the boundaries to higher efficiency also in electrical parts. A promising material group to reduce electrical losses are electrical steels with high silicon contents. However, such steels are difficult to process with conventional methods and, thus, additive manufacturing came into focus in recent years. The present study investigates the processability, crack sensitivity, microstructure evolution and magnetic domain structures of laser powder bed fused Fe–Si alloys with 3 and 9 wt.-% Si. It is shown that specimens, which are built using appropriate process parameters, are dense and free of cracks. Still, Fe–9Si is characterized by a higher crack susceptibility at low temperatures of the build platform. A checkerboard like microstructure with elongated grains alongside build direction evolved. Global magnetic properties from ring core measurements showed lower losses for the Fe–9Si ring. Moreover, it was found that the magnetic domain structures are directly influenced by the crystallographic orientations present in the specimen volumes. The findings elaborated will contribute to advanced possibilities in tailoring the magnetic properties of electrical steels for an increase of the efficiency of envisaged applications.

Effects of base plate temperature on microstructure evolution and high-temperature mechanical properties of IN718 processed by laser powder bed fusion using simulation and experiment

Base plate preheating is a relatively new strategy to influence the mechanical properties and microstructure of IN718. Base plate preheating was studied to reduce Niobium (Nb) segregation in the interdendritic region of IN718 superalloy and to improve mechanical properties through the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process. Here, we compared experimental results for high-temperature (650℃) mechanical properties of specimens built with 200℃ (PH200) and 600℃ (PH600) preheated base plates. The as-built PH200 and PH600 specimens had relatively similar grain morphologies and orientations along the building direction. The PH200 specimen showed a cellular structure and higher Nb segregation at the interdendritic region, whereas the PH600 specimen had a dendritic structure and lower Nb segregation. The lower amount of Nb segregation in the PH600 specimen is mainly because of the cooling rate difference between specimens during the L-PBF process. The PH600 specimen exhibited slightly better tensile properties, longer creep life, and elongation than the PH200 specimen in both the as-built and heat-treated conditions. These differences mainly occurred due to differences in Laves and δ-phase fractions between the PH200 and PH600 specimens. The simulation result indicates that the temperature distribution in the block remains relatively uniform during the building process.

Laser Rescanning for Enhancing Mechanical Properties of Laser-Directed Energy-Deposited High-Manganese Steels.

This study investigates the effects of laser deposition and laser rescanning (LR) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of high-manganese steel (HMnS) deposited by laser-directed energy deposition (L-DED) comprising 24 wt.% Mn. Four types of laser deposition and LR strategies were investigated: unidirectional L-DED scanning without laser rescanning, L-DED scanning with 90° alterations in the laser scanning path on each layer without laser rescanning, unidirectional L-DED with laser rescanning in the same direction, and L-DED with laser rescanning with 90° alterations in the laser scanning path. The L-DED-processed HMnS had only a few small pores and exhibited a microstructure without any serious defects such as cracks. Additionally, a strong fibrous texture along the <101>/building direction of the fully austenite phase was found. The mechanical properties (microhardness and tensile strength) of HMnS were improved by the LR with a grain refinement effect and fine solidification cell size due to the significantly faster solidification rate in LR than that in L-DED.

Investigation of the Mechanical Characteristics of Metal 3D Printing at Different Build Orientation and Directions

Abstract In this paper, metal 3D printing technology was used to investigate the effects of build orientation angles and direction on the mechanical characteristics of 316L stainless steel produced by the Bound Metal Deposition (BMD) process. Several orientation angles (0 deg, 45 deg, and 90 deg) of the test specimens were made for both horizontal and vertical build directions. The tensile testing apparatus was used on metal 3D-printed samples to determine their mechanical characteristics, such as Young's modulus, elongation at break, and ultimate strength. Brinell hardness tester was also used to compare the hardness of 3D-printed samples to the original native material. In addition, the porosity and microstructure of the printed samples were analyzed in this study. The findings of this investigation revealed how, in comparison to the original material, the mechanical properties of the metal 3D-printed material rely on the raster orientation and build type. The experimental results demonstrate that the 3D-printed parts using the BMD process have comparable ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break compared to the original material for 0 deg orientation and horizontal build direction. The elongation at break was found to depend strongly on the build direction for 45 deg and 90 deg printing orientation. Further, Young's modulus was found to be much lower than the original material using the BMD process.

CMT-WAAM deposition strategies for thin overhanging disc of SS308LSi and investigation of mechanical and microstructural characteristics

This work investigates the deposition strategies with microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of SS308LSi overhanging disc produced by CMT-WAAM in horizontal position. The disc was deposited on a rotating cylindrical substrate where three primary geometrical abnormalities named sagging, start and end defect and humping were observed. The causes and remedial strategies were investigated to eliminate these abnormalities. Microstructure analysis of the layers cross section revealed a defect free layer depositions and columnar solidification with epitaxial grain growth. A very slightly coarser grains structure is observed in the middle layers of the disc compared to that of bottom and top regions. The microhardness at bottom, mid and top regions are in the range of 236 ± 9.2 HV, 227 ± 11.3 HV and 232 ± 6 HV, respectively. The microhardness values are consistent with the calculated SDAS along the build direction. Tensile tests were performed at room temperature and the samples failed with an average yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and percentage of elongation of 391.4 ± 21 MPa, 616.8 ± 19.5 MPa and 45.6 ± 0.8% respectively. This work reveals that CMT-WAAM can successfully produce overhanging disc components of high-quality without using an industrial robot at a relatively low cost.

Experimental and Crystal Plasticity Finite Element Investigations of Plastic Anisotropy in Additively Manufactured Ti6Al4V Alloy

Additive manufacturing, particularly the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technique, has ushered in a new era of intricate metallic component fabrication, leveraging the exceptional performance of the Ti6Al4V alloy. However, the intricate mechanical behavior of additively manufactured Ti6Al4V, particularly its anisotropic attributes stemming from non-equilibrium microstructures, presents a formidable challenge. In this study, we embark on a comprehensive exploration of the anisotropic mechanical properties exhibited by LPBFed Ti6Al4V alloy. The interplay between microstructure and tensile response is unraveled by integrating experimental investigations with crystal plasticity finite element (CPFE) simulations. The acquired empirical data with CPFE model predictions are harmonized through systematic tensile tests along distinct processing orientations. The results unveil the genesis of plastic anisotropy within the LPBFed Ti6Al4V alloy, ascribed to the emergence of columnar grains meticulously aligned along the building direction, despite the intricate material microstructure inherent to additive manufacturing. These findings collectively furnish a holistic comprehension of the intricate nexus between material attributes and the mechanical manifestations intrinsic to metal components realized through additive manufacturing modalities.

Ex-situ characterization and simulation of density fluctuations evolution during sintering of binder jetted 316L

Efficient density evolution during sintering of the as-printed component is vital to reach full densification and required properties of binder jet (BJT) components. However, due to the high porosity and brittle nature of the green compact, analysis of the microstructure development during sintering is very difficult, resulting in lack of understanding of the densification process. Density development from green state (57 ± 1.6 %) up to full density (99 ± 0.3 %) was characterized by high-resolution synchrotron X-Ray computed tomography (SXCT) on BJT 316L samples from ex-situ interrupted sintering tests. Periodicity of density fluctuations along the building direction was revealed for the first time and was related to the layer thickness of ∼ 42 µm during printing that decreased down to ∼ 33 µm during sintering. Sintering simulations, utilizing a continuum sintering model developed for BJT, allowed to replicate the density evolution during sintering with a mean error of 2 % and its fluctuation evolution from green (1.66 %) to sintered (0.56 %) state. Additionally, simulation of extreme particle size segregation (1 µm to 130 µm) suggested that non-optimized printing could lead to undesirable density fluctuation amplitude rapid increase (∼10 %) during sintering. This might trigger the nucleation of defects (e.g., layer delamination, cracking, or excessive residual porosity) during the sintering process.

Development and directed energy deposition of high strength Hf5Mo15Nb35Ta25Ti20 refractory high entropy alloys

In this study, a novel HfMoNbTaTi refractory high entropy alloy was designed by empirical calculations and CALculation of PHAse Diagram (CALPHAD) method by using ThermoCalc software. Directed energy deposition (DED) based additive manufacturing process was used to produce the alloy. After the process parameter determination studies using single-track productions, cuboids were produced. The microstructural investigations showed that while the central region of cuboids has large grains, the outer region has a dendritic structure with some unmolten Mo powders. Although columnar grain formation, which is the general characteristic of directional solidification, was observed at some points, irregularly shaped grains were dominant in the structure. Moreover, there were micron to nano-sized Hf-Ti-O particles inside the grains and especially around the grain boundaries. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses confirmed the formation of disordered body-centered cubic (BCC) Hf5Mo15Nb35Ta25Ti20 alloy with ∼6 vol% of Hf-Ti-O particles. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analyses indicated that there is a slight texture in the building direction along 〈111〉. In order to determine the stability of these alloys, ex-situ heat treatments coupled with XRD studies were conducted. As opposed to CALPHAD calculations it was not observed any HCP phase formation. Compression test results showed that Hf5Mo15Nb35Ta25Ti20 alloys have high strength (σy = ∼1300 MPa) and high compressive ductility with good strain-hardening ability. Theoretical calculations revealed that the strength of the alloy mainly originated from solid solution strengthening.

Insights for improving the electromagnetic properties of conductive nanocomposites manufactured with carbon nanotubes

Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies offer many advantages that are attractive for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) in industrial environments, and possibilities include customizable sizes and new complex internal shapes (infill) for parts. The polymeric nanocomposites with carbon-based nanomaterials, such as multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), are of great interest and can be used for the development of functional electromagnetic components using the material extrusion (MEX) technique,. However, the literature lacks a deeper understanding of the relationship between the MEX process, the slicing parameters, the structure generated, and the electromagnetic behavior of the nanocomposite-based parts. This work studied the influence of building direction, various infill patterns, and orientations of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer (ABS)/MWCNT nanocomposite with 3 wt% of MWCNT on the manufacture of samples by additive manufacturing, with the evaluation of the electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness (EMI SE) and reflection loss (RL) performances of the prepared materials. The correlation between geometric parameters and the EM response was explored and corroborated with computational simulations. The results pointed out that parts using the building direction (ZX and XY) may achieve similar shielding results depending mainly on the infill orientation. When the deposited filament (or the entire layer) is aligned with the electric field, the EM shielding behavior is maximized. In contrast, when the deposited filaments are orthogonal to the electric field, the behavior is impaired. The computational simulation of the rheological flow of the nanocomposite and the EM behavior corroborated these findings, and the MEX sample matched the attenuation of the injection molded sample behavior for a greater thickness (16 dB at 9 mm). Additionally, the RL behavior of the parts with different infill patterns and thicknesses was studied. These results indicated that the MEX process might be a promising way to promote the reflection loss (RL) behavior of conductive materials that, in bulk, would not promote such a good response. The best RL performance found was − 18 dB and 1.4 GHz bandwidth for the 50 wt% hexagonal infill pattern with an extra layer in the middle of the body sample.

High-temperature compression deformation strengthening mechanism of Mg–Gd–Y–Zn–Zr alloy formed by cold metal transfer (CMT) arc additive forming

The Mg–Gd–Y–Zn–Zr alloy structural parts were formed by CMT arc additive forming. The high-temperature compression deformation strengthening mechanism of the alloy at 623–723 K, 0.01–1s−1, and 50 % deformation was studied. Upon a decrease in the temperature or an increase in the strain rate, the effect of fine-grain strengthening was obvious, which led to the improvement of the mechanical properties of the alloy after deformation. The grain refinement was mainly attributed to the DDRX and CDRX processes during hot deformation. Because the compression specimen was loaded along the building direction, the twins after deformation were compression twins {10–11}, and the content increased with an increase in the strain rate or a decrease in the temperature. As the strain rate increased, the texture distribution on the {10-10} plane became more concentrated and the texture intensity decreased from 6.79 to 2.24. This was attributed to the fact that the alloy was mainly dominated by a non-basal slip during high-temperature deformation, which increased the sensitivity of the strain rate to the texture.

CuCrZr Alloy Manufactured by LPBF Process: Correlation Between Microstructure, Mechanical and Thermal Properties

Copper based alloys are promising materials for electrical and thermal devices. In this respect, the use of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) allows the realization of 3D complex structures, possibly enhancing the functional performances of such devices. LPBF also induces refined microstructures and build-up of residual stresses, due to the rapid solidifications and high cooling rate. In this work a CuCrZr alloy was manufactured by LPBF and a process feasibility window was defined. The effect of a heat treatment, consisting of solution annealing and artificial aging, on the microstructure, tensile and thermal properties was evaluated. Moreover, particular attention was addressed to the effect of the building direction on the thermal behaviour.It was found that thermal conductivity is improved by the heat treatment and that thermal conductivity resulted anisotropic, being higher in the growth direction.

Roughness Related to Cooling Performance of Channels Made Through Additive Manufacturing

Abstract The complex surface morphology and multiscale surface features inherent in additively manufactured (AM) components contribute to the overall flow characteristics and heat transfer of cooling passages. As the AM process and cooling data in the literature continue to evolve, so does the need for more accurate heat transfer and pressure loss correlations for AM cooling schemes. This study improves the predictability of pressure loss and heat transfer for AM cooling passages by fabricating a range of coupons and investigating samples in the literature. Twenty-seven test coupons were manufactured using direct metal laser sintering in an assortment of build directions and build locations that produced a variety of surface morphologies. Nondestructive evaluation, computed tomography scanning, was used to quantify the surface morphology as well as capture the as-built geometric dimensions of the cooling schemes. The friction factor and bulk Nusselt number of the coupons were measured using an experimental rig. Pressure loss and heat transfer correlations in the literature were compared with the experimental results from the current coupons and datasets from the literature. Arithmetic mean roughness correlations in the literature struggled to predict the cooling performance of AM channels since the bulk roughness statistic did not capture the overall form of the surface morphology. A combination of root mean square roughness and skewness of the roughness was able to best predict pressure loss and heat transfer for the present samples and those in the literature while being independent of build location, build direction, material, machine, and laser parameters. The maximum absolute error was 25% and the average absolute error was 12% for the friction factor correlation. The maximum absolute error was 39% and the average absolute error was 8% for the Nusselt Number correlation.

AM Bench 2022 Macroscale Tensile Challenge at Different Orientations (CHAL-AMB2022-04-MaTTO) and Summary of Predictions

The additive manufacturing benchmarking challenge described in this work was aimed at the prediction of average stress–strain properties for tensile specimens that were excised from blocks of non-heat-treated IN625 manufactured by laser powder bed fusion. Two different laser scan strategies were considered: an X-only raster and an XY raster, which involved a 90∘\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^\\circ $$\\end{document} rotation in the scan direction between subsequent layers. To measure anisotropy, multiple tensile orientations with respect to the build direction were investigated (e.g., parallel, perpendicular, and intervals in between). Benchmark participants were provided grain structure information via electron backscatter diffraction measurements, as well as the stress–strain response for tensile specimens manufactured parallel to the build direction and produced by the XY scan strategy. Then, participants were asked to predict tensile properties, like the ultimate tensile strength, for the remaining specimens and orientations. Interestingly, the measured mechanical properties did not vary linearly as a function of tensile orientation. Moreover, specimens manufactured with the XY scan strategy exhibited greater yield strength than those corresponding to the X-only scan strategy, regardless of orientation. The benchmark data have been made publicly available for anyone that is interested [1]. For the modeling aspect of the challenge, five teams participated in this benchmark. While most of the models incorporated a crystal plasticity framework, one team chose to use a more semiempirical approach and to great success. However, no team excelled at all the predictions, and all teams were seemingly challenged with the predictions associated with the X-only scan strategy.

The Effects of Layer Thickness on the Mechanical Properties of Additive Friction Stir Deposition-Fabricated Aluminum Alloy 6061 Parts

Solid-state additive friction stir deposition (AFSD) is a thermomechanical-based additive manufacturing technique. For this study, AFSD was utilized to produce aluminum alloy 6061 (AA6061) blocks with varying layer thicknesses (1 mm, 2 mm, and 3 mm). The mechanical properties were assessed through uniaxial tensile tests and Vickers microhardness measurement, and statistical analysis was employed to investigate differences among data groups. The results revealed that the deposition layer thickness influences tensile properties in the building (Z) direction, while the properties in the X and Y directions showed minor differences across the three AFSD blocks. Furthermore, variations in tensile properties were observed depending on the sample orientation in the AFSD blocks and its depth-wise position in the part in the building direction. The microhardness values decreased non-linearly along the building direction, spread across the width of the part’s cross-section, and highlighted that the deposition layer thickness significantly affects this property. The 1 mm block exhibited lower average microhardness values than the 2 mm and 3 mm blocks. The temperature histories and dynamic heat treatment are influenced by the deposition layer thickness and depend on the location of the point being studied in the part, resulting in variations in the microstructure and mechanical properties along the building direction and across the part’s width.

A holistic approach for evaluation of Gaussian versus ring beam processing on structure and properties in laser powder bed fusion

In this study, a holistic evaluation strategy employing a complex test artifact, coupled with single line scan tracks, was employed to examine the influence of different laser beam energy profiles on various features of laser-based powder bed fusion of metals (PBF-LB/M). Using IN718, results revealed a significant influence of the laser beam on bead geometry. Specifically, the conventional Gaussian beam produced deeper, concave-shaped melt pools, while the ring beam resulted in wider and shallower beads. In terms of productivity, the artifacts (two each) fabricated using the Gaussian beam required 6 h and 6 min of build time, while those built using ring beam required only 3 h and 49 min (37% build time reduction) but a defocused Gaussian beam (not included in this study) can match the productivity of the ring beam. However, the holistic approach using the complex test artifact highlighted drawbacks associated with the ring beam, including increased lack of fusion porosity, compromised resolution for features below 0.5 mm, and less than 10% elongation to break in both as built and heat-treated conditions. While acknowledging the potential for improvement through further process optimization, the study concludes that the shallower melt pools produced by the ring beam may cause limitations as layer thicknesses increase. Microstructural analysis revealed distinct grain characteristics, with the Gaussian beam producing more equiaxed grains and the ring beam favouring columnar grains positioned along the build direction. The work primarily highlights the need for and benefits from a holistic analysis in PBF-LB/M technology, ensuring data driven outcomes.