Buddhist Temples Research Articles

Spiritual Exaltation in Timeless Places of Worship: Insights from the New Maimonides Central Sephardic Synagogue, Hadera, Israel

The deep emotion we feel when entering any timeless place of worship—a synagogue, a church, or a Buddhist temple—stems from the patterns of space that generated them. These are patterns that reflect the innate patterns printed in our minds from the outset and that are thus common to us all as human beings of any culture or religion. In designing the Maimonides Central Sephardic Synagogue I endeavored to capture the timeless spiritual exaltation one experiences in the places of worship where Maimonides prayed, such as the Iben Denan Synagogue in Fez, Morocco or the Ben-Ezra Synagogue in Cairo, Egypt, and to revive the traditional patterns based on Maimonides’ halachic rulings—the laws he set down in his book Hayad Hahazaka, as passed on to me in the synagogues of Tzfat, the holy Kabbalah city of Galilee, birthplace of Judaism’s mystical strand, and hometown of my family since the early nineteenth century.

중앙아시아 불교유적의 분포현황과 의의

Buddhist remains in Central Asia are found in five regions: Bactria-Toharistan region in southern Uzbekistan and in southwestern Tajikistan, Fergana region in eastern Uzbekistan and Sogdiana region in central Samarkand, Merv region in eastern Turkmenistan, and Semirechiye region in north-eastern Kyrgyzstan. They are dated from around the 1st century to the 9th and 10th centuries. Most of the Buddhist remains in the northern part of Bactria-Toharistan region are Buddhist temples, but there are only stupas remained without temple buildings such as the Jurmala Stupa and Airtam Stupa. The Karatepa Buddhist Temple, the Fayaztepa Buddhist Temple, and the Buddhist Temples inside and outside the capital city Dalverzintepa are built on the Kushan period in the 2nd and 4th centuries and stupas are found in all these temples. Semirechiye is the region where Buddhist remains are clustered following Bactria-Toharistan region and was influenced by Chinese Buddhism after the 7th century and Tibetan Buddhism later. Not stupas but a large Buddha statue and a large statue of nirvana are found at Akbeshim Buddhist Temple and Ajinatepa Buddhist Temple, respectively, that represents the change in the object of worship. The Buddhist remains of Central Asia are largely divided into two periods. The Bactria-Toharistan Buddhist culture from the 2nd to the 4th centuries was the first period of Buddhist culture in Central Asia, when Buddhism was first introduced and settled in Central Asia along with the expansion of the Kushan Empire. The late Buddhist culture of the Central Asia flourished in Bactria-Toharistan and Semirechiye regions in the 7th and 8th centuries was the second period, and the center of Buddhism moved to East Asia. It was confirmed that Buddhism in Central Asia was developed by exchanging influences with other religions, such as Zoroastrianism previously propagated through traces of rituals related to fire or murals in Buddha statue with a flame-shaped halo. In Buddhist architecture, the use of drying bricks and the construction of stone cave temple that dug into the sandstone layer are reflected in consideration of the material and climate characteristics of the site. As such, it can be seen that the Central Asia did not simply serve as a messenger of civilization, but rather accepted, developed, and spread it to other regions.

몽골 카라코룸의 네스토리우스파 기독교유적 연구

This paper examines the possibility that a complex architectural site, excavated by the Mongol-German joint research team from 2006 to 2009, located in the northern outskirts of Karakorum, may have been a Nestorian Christian church. The rectangular complex, surrounded by earthen-walls, can be divided into two phases based on the building's layout and overlapping architectural features. The initial structure within the complex had a unique configuration, with a large room at the front directly connected to a smaller room at the back, situated centrally within the walled area. Unlike traditional Mongolian architecture, which typically faces south, this building faced east, and it is notable for having an altar in the smaller rear room. Artifacts found at the site include fragments of a cross, characteristic of Nestorian Christianity, and bronze artifacts resembling candlesticks popular in medieval Europe. These findings strongly suggest that the site was a Nestorian Christian church during the Mongol Empire. The site's location in the northern outskirts of Karakorum aligns with the description of a Nestorian Christian church in William of Rubruck’s book. Additionally, the basic rectangular layout with a niche(apse) at the end containing an altar, as found in Central Asian Nestorian churches, further supports this identification. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the church was constructed in the early 13th century. The excavation revealed that the church was destroyed by fire. However, after the church's destruction, three tiled buildings with a different layout were immediately erected on the site. The structure and artifacts suggest that these buildings were likely a Buddhist temple. Additionally, a significant number of cattle horns were found inside the side buildings, suggesting that specific ritual activities took place at this location.

Powerful Patina: The Value of Odors in a Tibetan Buddhist Temple

ABSTRACT In the past decades, attention towards a more sensory perception in the arts and architecture has gained momentum and concerns a variety of disciplines. Nonetheless, hands-on conservation efforts still overwhelmingly concentrate on the visual qualities and values of places. In the following article, I present a case study of a Tibetan–Buddhist temple in Ladakh/India that empirically examines questions of value as they extend to the idea of patina found on wall paintings inside the temple produced by the burning of butter lamps. The layer of soot which obscures these centuries-old wall paintings has particular olfactory qualities. The paper draws from my professional and personal experience as art conservator working with an NGO from 2004 until 2014. It is a methodological re-thinking of our original conservation approach through the framework of Alois Riegl's value model applied to olfactory perceptions of patina. Examined are the meaning of odors concerning heritage values, memory, and the formation of identity. Odors are site-specific, therefore, conservation work at heritage sites needs to include the documentation and value assessment of their olfactory qualities to determine the impact a removal of patina may have on stakeholder communities.

Distribution and landscape patterns of cultural heritage in monastic settlements on the Western Sichuan plateau: A case study of Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture

The cultural heritage of temples represents a visible achievement of civilization, engraved on the Chinese land. The unique geographical and cultural resources of the Western Sichuan plateau have given rise to numerous distinctive Tibetan Buddhist temple communities. This study focuses on the Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture as a representative case, defining the research scope, area, boundaries, and landscape types based on land use and land cover data. Using ArcGIS and Fragstats, the study analyzed the generation and distribution of temple-related cultural heritage, as well as the composition characteristics of various landscape patches. The landscape pattern indices were calculated to examine the spatial arrangement and relationships between different landscape patch types. Furthermore, the research explored the pattern and fundamental characteristics of the landscape associated with temple communities. The findings offer theoretical insights into the protection, development, and spatial management of temple cultural heritage on the Western Sichuan plateau.

Weituo Statue in Temple Space: Worshipping Weituo as a Patron Deity of the Chinese Saṅgha

Weituo 韦驮 is one of the most frequently represented protective deities in Chinese Buddhist temples. The statue of Weituo is enshrined virtually in every standard Buddhist temple in China today, and at a unique location—in the entrance hall for the four Heavenly Kings and facing inward. Why is the Weituo statue placed at this place and looking inward? The Chinese Weituo can be traced back to the Hindu god Skanda. However, his iconography and functions in China were completely reshaped by master Daoxuan’s 道宣 (596–667) account of this deity. Actually, Weituo is just one of the many Buddhist protective deities for general protection and prosperity. In China, as I demonstrate in this study, Weituo has been known as the most diligent Dharma-protector and is associated in particular with the saṅgha, as a patron guardian and inspector of monks and nuns. Thus, Weituo’s images are shrined in Buddhist temples. The locations of these images reflect the importance of Weituo and his special role in Chinese Buddhism. In the past, there have been a few studies, but they mainly focus on his origin. The functions of Weituo and the worship of Weituo in the Chinese saṅgha have not been well examined. Going beyond his identities, iconography, and style, this study aims to contextualize Weituo images in temple space and religious practice.

Investigation on the Construction of Yinshan Buddhist Temple in Beijing

Yinshan Tallin is located in Xihu Village, Xingshou Town, Changping District, Beijing. During the reign of Tang Zhenguan, Yinshan temple was built, and the famous monks and Zen masters of all dynasties came to practice here one after another. Through a detailed review of the construction of Yinshan Buddhist Temple and the development of Buddhism from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, that is, from the 7th century to the 20th century, this paper conducted investigation on such a temple with a long history and unique geographical location, which can help people better understand its value and influence, and provide references for protection and inheritance.

Bidirectional Transmission Mapping of Architectural Styles of Tibetan Buddhist Temples in China from the 7th to the 18th Century

Architecture is the stone book of history, and the evolution of architectural styles showcases a non-verbal history constructed through images. As an important part of China’s historical and cultural heritage, the architectural forms and styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples were initially modeled on Tang dynasty temple architecture and gradually evolved into the most significant architectural types in regions such as Tibet and Qinghai in China. Religious architecture has also played a significant role in shaping regional cultural landscapes. Existing research on Tibetan Buddhist temples is primarily focused on qualitative studies of individual temple buildings. This research takes the spatiotemporal evolution of architectural styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples as an entry point and, for the first time, employs ArcGIS technology to visualize the spatial and geographical distribution of Tibetan Buddhist temples from the 7th to the 18th century, establishing a comprehensive academic vision that encompasses both historical stratification and cross-regional spatial correlations. By analyzing the cultural symbolic features embodied in the construction styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples and the visual characteristics reflected in their decorative arts, we propose two spatiotemporal dimensions for the formation and transmission of Tibetan Buddhist temple architectural styles: “Westward Transmission” and “Eastward Diffusion”. Firstly, from the 7th to the 9th centuries, the architectural style and construction techniques of Tang dynasty Buddhist temples were transmitted westward along the Tang–Tibet ancient road, integrating with local Tibetan elements to form the Tubo architectural style, which was further refined into the “Sino–Tibetan Combined Style” with strong visual characteristics around the 13th century. Subsequently, along with the spread of Tibetan Buddhism, this temple architectural style underwent an eastward diffusion from the 13th to the 18th century, reaching regions, such as Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, and Beijing, presenting a spatial gradient from west to east in the geographical dimension. On this basis, in this research, we construct a historical evolution mapping of Tibetan Buddhist temple architectural styles based on bidirectional transmission, attempting to elucidate that the intrinsic driving forces are religious and the cultural identity that guided the bidirectional transmission mechanism of these architectural styles under the historical context of the formation and dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism from the 7th to the 18th century.

Spatio-Temporal Distribution Characteristics of Buddhist Temples and Pagodas in the Liaoning Region, China

Buddhist culture in Liaoning has a long and rich history. The continuous spread of Buddhism has promoted the development of Buddhist architecture, leaving us a rich architectural art heritage. Furthermore, it has also profoundly influenced China’s architectural characteristics, social culture, and economic development. This paper takes Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning as the research objects and uses methods such as the geographic concentration index, nearest neighbor index, kernel density estimation, and standard deviation ellipse to analyze their spatio-temporal distribution characteristics and influencing factors across different periods. 1. Temporal distribution. During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) and the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), the construction of Buddhist temples and pagodas was the highest, with a linear increase in the Qing Dynasty. 2. The overall spatial distribution of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning is uneven, showing an agglomeration distribution state. The distribution status of different periods was different, and the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing dynasties (1636–1912 AD) showed obvious aggregation distribution. The overall state is “more in the west and less in the east” and “more in the north and less in the south”. 3. In different periods, the spatial distribution direction of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning was relatively obvious and was southwest–northeast, and the center of gravity gradually shifted to the northwest. 4. The kernel density of different periods presents the density distribution and area of each period. The overall distribution is dense to scattered and then to highly dense. 5. The spatio-temporal distribution characteristics of Buddhist temples and pagodas in Liaoning are mainly composed of deep-seated political factors, rapid economic development and stable social environment, diverse culture, natural geography, cultural relics protection, and the artistic value of Buddhist architecture in the Liaoning region.

Sacred Land, Religious Land Use, and Sustainable Urban Development

ABSTRACT: The urban land question is undeniably a pressing societal problem. Criticisms of the financialization of urban land continue, much like the challenge to land grabbing. Questions about alternatives are relatively rare, so this article addresses the following questions: What does sacred land mean in the Thai Buddhist context? How has the belief in sacred land influenced the ethical considerations of religious land use in Thailand? Important in themselves, these questions also invite consideration of how religious land use addresses the challenge of sustainable urban development. Empirical data from interviews were gathered from Buddhist senior monks in five Thai cities and representatives from the Land Development Department and the National Office of Buddhism. Systematic and document analyses of these data show that the notion of sacred land in the Thai Buddhist context is contested. Nonetheless, the belief in sacred land has made Thai Buddhist temple land distinctive and, at the same time, influenced landowners and land users to follow ethical equitable considerations that have substantial ramifications for economy, society, and environment.

Lighting Design for Lanna Buddhist Architecture: A Case Study of Suan Dok Temple, Chiang Mai, Thailand

In Chiang Mai, Thailand, there has been an increasing demand for lighting design strategies that enhance tangible and intangible values of cultural heritage destinations. This research explores the role of lighting design in enhancing the cultural experiences and promoting the cultural tourism of Lanna Buddhist architecture. Suan Dok Temple was selected as a case study due to its historical, social, and cultural significance. This research uses qualitative approaches such as field surveys, photographic documentation, and interviews with temple authorities, cultural heritage experts and tourism professionals for the formulation of initial users’ requirements and lighting design criteria and concept. Data analysis suggested that cultural heritage and conservation, cultural tourism management, and operation and maintenance are important factors in heritage lighting design for cultural tourism. Realistic rendering images of lighting design scenes for the temple’s chedis and vihara are generated based on the concept of luminance layers representing the Buddhist cosmology idea. In addition, lighting operation and installation details are developed and presented to stakeholders for discussion on contextual and operational appropriateness. Finally, the study discusses critical lighting design factors for the development of lighting design solutions for heritage sites, particularly Lanna Buddhist temples, contributing to sustainable cultural tourism.

Exploring How to Construct Buddhist Temples in Sacred Forests: A Critical Ethnography in Northeast Thailand

Exploring How to Construct Buddhist Temples in Sacred Forests: A Critical Ethnography in Northeast Thailand

Pulau Kemaro : Simbol Toleransi Antaragama di Sumatera Selatan

This Community Service (PKM) activity aims to promote and strengthen the values of interreligious tolerance in South Sumatra through the introduction and preservation of Kemaro Island as a symbol of tolerance. Kemaro Island is a small island in the Musi River, Palembang, which is known for the legend of love between a Chinese prince and a princess of Palembang as well as the existence of Buddhist temples that are side by side with the traditions of the local community. Through a series of activities such as workshops, seminars, cultural exhibitions, and educational tours, the program engages various elements of society, including youth, religious leaders, and academics, to understand the history and cultural values of Kemaro Island. This activity also includes training for local tour guides to be able to convey accurate and interesting information about Kemaro Island to visitors. In addition, this program seeks to increase public awareness of the importance of maintaining and preserving cultural sites as valuable heritage. It is hoped that through this activity, the community can better appreciate cultural and religious diversity and foster a spirit of tolerance and harmony in daily life. The results of this PKM activity will be documented in the form of scientific reports and publications, and are expected to be a model for other regions in developing and promoting the values of tolerance through local cultural heritage.

Paradoxical postsecularity in the making: a methodological experiment in the study of China’s temple-centered urban redevelopment

The incorporation of Buddhist temples into urban redevelopment within China’s market transition became notable after the 2000s. Domestic and international real estate developers collaborated with local governments and state-owned enterprises in the construction of commercial complexes by converting under-used spaces around renowned Buddhist temples. Among these scattered projects of temple-centered redevelopment across Mainland China, this article identifies one during which the Hong Kong-based developer, Swire Properties (Taikoo in Cantonese), built an open, low-density shopping center in Chengdu around the Daci temple in 2014. Named as the “Taikoo Li,” the project attests to unique logics of planning and operation, while evoking discursive, cultural, and material practices, religious as well as non-religious, in people’s everyday life. Drawing upon an extensive ethnographic study in Chengdu, Sichuan, this article enters a dialogue with postsecularist debates dominated by Euro-American instances, and proposes micro-sociological reinventions of “postsecularity” by adopting a position of “methodological ludism” as opposed to conventional theist, atheist and agnostic positions. Our analytical and methodological inquiries aim to fully showcase the paradoxical nature of “postsecularity,” especially within a contemporary urban context, in which the paradoxes are sustained in the self-conflicting narratives of the researched as well as the reflexivity of the researchers.

The Spread of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia from the 16th to the 17th Century: The Spatial Formation of the World Heritage Site Erdene Zuu Monastery

Erdene Zuu is the oldest extant Buddhist temple in the country of Mongolia, founded following the reintroduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Inner Mongolia in the sixteenth century. The subject of this paper is the building activities of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, particularly of the complex centering on Gurban Zuu (Three Temples), which are the main buildings of Erdene Zuu. The author first confirms Gurban Zuu’s ground plan based on measurements, and then interprets the “black-ink inscription” discovered on the ridge purlin of the Central Buddha Hall. This complex is then compared with Inner Mongolian Buddhist temples of the same period. Finally, the author studies whether or not the spatial structure of the temple architecture of the Mongolian Empire of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was continued at Erdene Zuu, and analyzes the position that Erdene Zuu occupied in the Tibetan Buddhist sphere. This comparative study investigates the origins of Erdene Zuu’s architectural spatial composition within East Asia.

益山与东亚古代都城

The cultural heritage of Iksan possesses the structural characteristics of an ancient capital, with well-preserved palace grounds, Buddhist temples, the foundations of the royal city, substantially intact royal tombs, and a road network laid out in a grid pattern resembling the shape of the Chinese character “井”, all indicative of a capital city layout. Excavations at the royal palace site have unearthed roof tiles inscribed with the term of “首府(capital)”, while historical records refer to Iksan as the former capital, with both literature and archaeology supporting the notion of Iksan as an ancient capital. The capital Iksan exhibits features typical of East Asian capitals while also reflecting characteristics unique to Baekje's capitals. Under pressure from internal and external forces, Baekje kings may have adopted a “multi- capital system” to adapt and ensure survival. Sabi, Ungjin, and Iksan seem to have all served as capital cities during the reign of King Mu of Baekje. Archaeological findings, historical records, landmarks, and cultural relics collectively confirm the historical reality of Iksan as a capital city, fitting into the historical context of Baekje and conforming to the ancient capital typology of East Asia. Iksan's status as a capital city is substantiated, though the relevant evidence is fragmentary and lacks completeness and systemization. Only through comprehensive research utilizing the method of “bold hypothesis, careful verification” can we possibly confirm and elucidate the appearance and essence of its capital city.

Study on Buddhist Sculptures and Temples in Gyeryongsan National Park

Study on Buddhist Sculptures and Temples in Gyeryongsan National Park

Round Heaven and Square Earth, the Unity of the Pagoda and Statues—A Study on the Geometric Proportions of the Architectural Space, Statues, and Murals in Ying Xian Fogong Si Shijia Ta 應縣佛宮寺釋迦塔 (Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple in Ying County)

In Ying Xian Fogong Si Shijia Ta 應縣佛宮寺釋迦塔 (Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple in Ying County), Shanxi, there are statues set on each floor, and 26 exist in total, with six murals painted on the first floor. The pagoda was designed as a vertically rising Buddhist temple, and the interior space of each floor was customized for the statues. Based on previous research and through surveying and mapping of the architecture and statuary (including the murals on the first floor) combined with geometric design analysis, this paper proposes the following: First, there exists a clear geometric proportion among the interior space and statues on each floor of the pagoda. Second, clear proportional relationships also exist among the statues on each floor, and each of the 26 statues has ‘classical’ proportion rules. Third, the height of the giant Buddha statue on the first floor is the module for not only the height of the statues on each floor but also the construction of the whole pagoda such that the height of the statue on the first floor is 1/6 of the total height of the pagoda (excluding the base). And the ratio of the pagoda’s total height to the first floor’s diameter, the ratio of the total height to the top-story height under the column capital, and all the other geometric proportions are closely related to the architectural modeling. And finally, in the construction of the pagoda, statues, and murals, the scale is deduced to be 1 chi 尺 (Chinese foot) = 29.5 cm. These values give clear scale logics not only to the construction but also to the details of the statues. Accordingly, the most frequently used proportions in the architectural space, statues, and murals of the Pagoda of Fogong Temple are 2, 3:2, 5:3 (or 8:5), and 9:5, which are imbued with cultural messages, like Zhou Bi Suan Jing 周髀算經 (The Mathematical classic of the Zhou shadow-gauging instrument), Ying Zao Fa Shi 營造法式 (Treatise on Architectural Methods or State Building Standards), the ancient Chinese world view—tian yuan di fang 天圜地方 (the dome-shaped heaven and the flat, square earth) reflected from “ yuan fang tu 圓方圖 (rounded-square map)” and “fang yuan tu 方圓圖 (squared-circle map)”, ancient Chinese ideas that ”san tian liang di er yi shu 參天兩地而倚數 (‘three’ is the number of the heaven and ‘two’ is the number of the earth, and all numbers are based on them)” and “jiu wu zhi zun 九五之尊 (nine and five are the numbers of the honorable central position)”, and most probably related to the “mandala” of Esoteric Buddhism and to the Western “Golden Ratio”, which all need further research in depth.

The Role and Authority of Abbot Monks in Southern Theravada Buddhist Temples in Reviving the Sen Dolta Festival of the Khmer People in Southeast Vietnam

The Role and Authority of Abbot Monks in Southern Theravada Buddhist Temples in Reviving the Sen Dolta Festival of the Khmer People in Southeast Vietnam

"A mini home far away from home." The Thai temple and women's sense of safety in Finland.

This article explores the significance of the Thai Buddhist temple for Thai women's sense of safety in Finland. Despite the growing popularity of Buddhism in the country, research literature and media have largely ignored the religiosity of Thai women, focusing instead on negative stereotypes. The article highlights the importance of Buddhism and the temple in the lives of Thai women who have migrated to European countries and challenges biased portrayals of Thai women in previous research. Based on ethnographic research at the Thai temples in Finland and life story interviews with twelve Thai women. The article argues that the temple plays a crucial role in promoting a sense of safety among Thai women by providing a sense of home, belonging, and meaning. The temple's material and symbolic characteristics, in addition to its communality and relationality, work together to connect individuals with the temple's religious significance, contributing to the women's sense of security. These findings speak for the fact that when facing the challenges of Thai women or other religious and ethical minorities, it is necessary to also look to their religion as a source of mental and spiritual well-being.