Buddhist Revival Research Articles

Esoteric Theravada Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar

The achievement of independence in 1948 was in many ways a watershed in Burma’s history. At this time, a variety of Buddhist movements emerged that were part not only of a ‘Burmese Buddhist revival’, in which even the government was involved, but also a general re-enchantment of Asia. In the period following World War II, projects of nation-building and further modernization were implemented in many newly independent Asian nation states. The theories of modernization adopted by the rulers had presupposed that a new, rationalized and secularized order that had set them on the path of ‘progress’ would entail a decline of religion. However, instead there was a widespread resurgence of religion, and a variety of new, eclectic religious movements emerged in Southeast Asia. In the thriving religious field of postcolonial Burma, two lay Buddhist movements associated with two different meditation techniques emerged, viz.; the insight meditation movement and the concentration meditation movement. The latter consisted of a variety of esoteric congregations combining concentration meditation with esoteric lore, and some of these were characterized by fundamentalist trends. At the same time, the supermundane form of Buddhism became increasingly influential in the entire field of religion. The aim of the present article is to discuss how this supermundane dimension has reshaped the complex religious field in Burma, with particular emphasis on the esoteric congregations; to present the Burmese form of esoteric Theravāda Buddhism, and to situate the fundamentalist trends which are present in these contexts.

The spread of Tibetan Buddhism in China: charisma, money, enlightenment

The Spread of Tibetan Buddhism in China: Charisma, Money, Enlightenment. By Dan Smyer Yu. London: Routledge, 2012, xi + 222 pages, ISBN 978-0-415-57532-4 (cloth), $138.00. According to Dan Smyer Yu's informative new book, the marketing era of Tibetan Buddhism has begun (4). Charismatic Tibetan lamas and urban intellectuals, in concert with upper-class Chinese devotees and Western enthusiasts, are working to revitalize Tibetan religion and culture in contemporary socialist China, against the backdrop of economic globalization and religious commercialization. While Western observers typically lament the irrevocable loss of Tibetan cultural institutions under the weight of modern Chinese economic expansion, both Tibetan Buddhists and Han Chinese converts are taking full advantage of the opportunities afforded by the growing market economy to recast Tibetan Buddhism as antidote to the crisis of post-Maoist China. This is the story told in Smyer Yu's The Spread of Tibetan Buddhism in China, which focuses on the revivalist efforts of Chinese and Tibetan adepts of the Tibetan Buddhist Nyingma sect in and around the Kham and Amdo regions of Sichuan and Qinghai provinces, respectively. Based on extensive fieldwork in these regions as well as in several urban Chinese centers, Smyer Yu examines the new forms of Tibetan Buddhism that have developed through and within the growing counter-culture of Sino-Tibetan cyberspace. Smyer Yu illustrates how this Tibetan Buddhist revival is trans-cultural, cross-regional, tech-savvy, conversant with modern science and familiar with the economic system (5). And on this last count especially, he emphasizes how global market dynamics have both contributed to the growth of Tibetan Buddhism in China and led to the commodification and thus corruption of Tibetan Buddhist charisma. After an introductory chapter that sets this mise-en-scene of contemporary Tibetan Buddhism, Chapters two and three focus largely on the Weberian concept of and how it is complicated by the case studies that Smyer Yu examines. In Weber's classic formulation, authority derives from the unique force of personality displayed by individual leaders, both religious and secular, which draws crowds of followers and forms the basis for the development of traditions and institutions. With the rise of these institutions, then, the personal charisma of their long-departed founders becomes routinized--calcified into laws and dogmas that lead to the predominance of traditional and legal forms of authority. Smyer Yu argues that in several respects the case of contemporary Tibetan Buddhism contradicts these classic Weberian theories. In Chapter two, Tulkus, genuine and its transmissible interiority in Kham and Amdo, Smyer Yu emphasizes how Tibetan charisma functions as a collective religio-spiritual phenomenon (30). For one, given that the spiritual power of tulkus (reincarnate lamas) derives not from their individual personalities but from their claimed lines of reincarnation, Smyer Yu argues that Weber's charisma needs modification to account for the trans-personal, karmic trajectory of tulku authority. Secondly, integrating an avowedly Durkheimian perspective, Smyer Yu describes Tibetan charisma as a collective representation of the totemic bond between lamas and their followers (36). In other words, a lama's persona is (in part) created and reinforced by his community of followers, as exemplified in the case of Sangye Tsering Rinpoche, an eminent Nyingma tulku of the Smyoshil Monastery in eastern Kham. This fact, Smyer Yu maintains, gives cause to re-evaluate Weber's model of routinization as a degradation of pure charisma into petrified institutional structures. Instead, these very structures often guarantee the renewal of genuine Buddhist charisma, as charismatic education in the Tibetan case is a rejuvenation rather than a process of demise (38). …

In the Footsteps of the Tourists: Buddhist Revival at Museum/Temple Sites in Beijing

Only a fraction of the Buddhist temples in Beijing that once housed monastics now function as places for religious activity. Some were demolished while others were converted to schools, government buildings, or residences. Several of these former temples have been restored; however, some have not been reopened as official religious sites but rather as fee-charging museums. Other temples have been restored to religious use but remain encircled within fee-charging “parks” that cater mostly to tourists. Lay Buddhists in Beijing are challenging this “museumification” of Buddhist temples by seeking exemption from admission fees and engaging in religious activities at museum/temple sites. Through a close examination of two of these sites, the White Dagoba Temple and the Eight Great Places Park, the author explores how Buddhist laypeople engaged in popular worship practices are slowly transforming museum/temples into social spaces informed by a vital, living Buddhist religion.

Buddhist Revival under State Watch

The Chinese Communist Party has shown tolerance, if not direct support, for the growth of Buddhism over the last few decades. Three explanations for this lenient attitude are explored in this article. The flourishing of Buddhism is encouraged by the state less for its propaganda value in foreign affairs than for its potential to lure tourists who will, in turn, represent a source of revenue for local governments. Buddhist institutions are also establishing their track record in the management of philanthropic activities in impoverished area where local governments lack the resources to offer specific social services. Finally, the development of such activities has contributed to enhance cooperation between China and Taiwan, whose governments have a vested interest in the improvement of relations across the Strait. The article concludes that the growth of Buddhism in China results from the initiatives of Buddhists themselves, and the government supports this growth because it serves local politics well.

THE POLITICS OF BUDDHIST REVIVAL: U DHAMMALOKA AS SOCIAL MOVEMENT ORGANISER

This article explores some important aspects of U Dhammaloka's Buddhism, drawing in particular on the work of his Rangoon-based Buddhist Tract Society between 1907 and 1910. It explores his work—in the Society and more generally—as in effect a social movement organiser within the Buddhist Revival, looking at his funders, publishers, printers, translators and distributors as well as those who wrote about him, laid down their hair for him to walk on, covered his train or boat fares, put up his friends in monasteries or let them cross borders, and so forth. It also looks at what we know about his organisations and involvement in other people's organisations, asking who he intended to mobilise and who his audience was, how his use of confrontation and polemic fitted into this, and how successful he was. Following this, it goes on to discuss the intellectual sources of the free-thinking (atheist) positions espoused in the Society's publications, and asks more generally how his posture can be located in relation to the politics of plebeian freethought in Ireland, Britain, the USA and Asia. These questions arose out of an attempt to shed some light on the missing half-century before Dhammaloka became a public Buddhist figure; while the article can give no definite answers in terms of organising experience, intellectual inheritance or formative backgrounds, it suggests an alternative perspective that highlights a substantial, internationally connected ‘Workers’ University', grounded in the freethinking cultures of self-taught plebeian radicals, at the roots of western Buddhism.

Introduction: focus on Mongolia

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes Estimates of the precise numbers of animals lost vary between sources. Recent estimates indicate losses of some 20% of the national herd or 8.8 million animals by the end of May 2010, by comparison with numbers in January 2010 (CAMDA 2010 CAMDA. 2010. How to face the future [online]. Cambridge Mongolia Development Appeal. Available from http://www.camda.org.uk/index.html. [Accessed 2 August 2010] [Google Scholar]). As Bulag observes, Western leaders were curiously silent on this issue. However, a number of the rioters were subsequently pardoned by the new President, N. Enkhbayar, in 2009, while the struggle over the July 2008 elections was ostensibly resolved through the formation of a coalition government between the MPRP and DP in September 2008 (Bulag 2009 Bulag, U. 2009. Mongolia in 2008: from Mongolia to Mine-golia. Asian Survey, 49(1): 129–134. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Bulag 2010 Bulag, U. 2010. Mongolia in 2009: from landlocked to land-linked cosmopolitan. Asian Survey, 50(1): 97–103. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). ‘Ninja’ is a term widely used in Mongolia to refer to informal, often illegal, small-scale miners, whose resemblance to the children's cartoon characters when carrying panning equipment on their back, occasioned the nickname. Rival political parties at the 2008 elections promised payments of up to US$1300 per citizen each year from future mining revenues, variously described as ‘Wealth Share’ (Erdeniin huv) by the DP and more evocatively as ‘The Motherland's Blessing’ (Eh Oroni Hishig) by the MPRP (Bulag 2009 Bulag, U. 2009. Mongolia in 2008: from Mongolia to Mine-golia. Asian Survey, 49(1): 129–134. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], p. 132). The notion of Mongolia as ‘the motherland’ became an important aspect of nationalist discourse in the Soviet era, and one with continuing resonance in the post-Soviet era (Sneath 2010 Sneath, D. 2010. Political mobilization and the construction of collective identity in Mongolia. Central Asian Survey. 29(3): 251–267. [Google Scholar], this issue). The phase ‘reinvention of tradition’ does, of course, derive from the work of Hobsbawn, notably The Invention of Tradition (1993). ‘Tengrism’ is defined by Laruelle (2007) Laruelle, M. 2007. Religious revival, nationalism and the ‘invention of tradition’: political Tengrism in Central Asia and Tatarstan. Central Asian Survey, 26(2): 203–216. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar] as a new ideological movement, presented by its proponents as integral to the identities of Turkic – Mongol peoples, and strategically deployed in support of particular concepts of national identity. Ovoo are cairns, traditionally used to denote sacred sites and often located on mountain tops. The state-sanctioned revival of worshipping ceremonies at ovoo is one of the most readily apparent manifestations of the Buddhist revival. Elverskog (2006) Elverskog, J. 2006. Two Buddhisms in contemporary Mongolia. Contemporary Buddhism, 7(1): 29–46. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar] goes on to argue that, in particular versions of Marxist and nationalist rhetoric and historical analyses, Buddhism may also be seen as inimical to progress and modernity, but rather a tool employed by the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) to facilitate Mongol subjugation. Thus he argues that the Buddhist revival in Mongolia is problematic in terms of its interpretation and outcomes. He asks: ‘When the state tries to co-opt the mantle of Buddhist rule … in order to “restore patriotism and national pride” – will this be seen as cynical political manipulation of religion, or … an inspiring evocation of the Dharma on behalf of the nation?’ (ibid, p. 33). This question remains largely unanswered to date. Post (2007) Post, J. 2007. ‘I take my dombra and sing to remember my homeland’: identity, landscape and music in Kazakh communities of western Mongolia. Ethnomusicology Forum, 16(1): 45–69. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar] argues that notions of ‘homeland’ amongst Mongolia's Kazakhs include references to Mongolian lands, as well as to ‘ancestral homelands’ in Kazakhstan.

The violence of liberation: gender and Tibetan Buddhist revival in post‐Mao China – By Charlene E. Makley

The violence of liberation: gender and Tibetan Buddhist revival in post‐Mao China – By Charlene E. Makley

Charlene E. Marley: The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China

The Violence of Liberation is an extremely serious and innovative first-hand ethnographic account of the social history of Labrang, which is situated in China’s Gansu Province and considered by exiled Tibetans as part of their “Greater Tibetan Region.” As the sub-title of the book indicates, exploring “gender and Tibetan Buddhist revival in the post-Mao China” is the author’s central theme. Without directly getting into the sensitive political debate between Beijing and Dharamsala, Marley offers an alternative angle from which to study Sino-Tibetan relations: the trans-local gender perspective. Socialized in the official discourse that credits the regime change or “liberation” of Tibet in 1951 as a progressive attempt to liberate the suppressed Tibetans, men and women, most mainland Chinese readers might have difficulty embracing the author’s view that “for most Tibetan men and women in Labrang, socialist transformation was thus not only a forced secularization of their lives; it was also a fundamentally emasculating process” (27). Yet such observation is not ungrounded. Marley spent more than fifteen years gathering primary sources from the region during her numerous fieldtrips and the anthropological approach that she applies to study the topic is fundamentally lacking among her Chinese colleagues, no matter whether the topic is taboo or not. This contribution is instrumentally important to inter-disciplinary audiences, including those not specializing in gender politics like this reader. As an international relations scholar, this reader is particularly impressed by the inclusion of certain constructivist elements in the author’s account. How linguistics and discourses transformed Sino-Tibetan relations is an aspect which receives minimal focus in the discipline, and is also one of the least understood aspects among the lay community. Indeed, in response to the recent upheavals in Tibet, most official commentaries—which merely highlight the contribution made by the partystate to the Tibetans—can be classified as an intentional attempt at continuously J OF CHIN POLIT SCI (2010) 15:207–208 DOI 10.1007/s11366-010-9098-y

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. By Charlene Makley. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007. xvii, 374 pp. $60.00 (cloth); $24.95 (paper).

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. By Charlene Makley. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007. xvii, 374 pp. $60.00 (cloth); $24.95 (paper).

Making religion, making the state: the politics of religion in modern China

Yoshiko Ashiwa and David L Wank (eds), Making Religion, Making State: The Politics of Religion in Modem China, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2009, 294 pp.akin g Religion, Making State is an important contribution to field of religious studies in that it constitutes a sophisticated attempt to escape what editors consider a prevailing paradigm in today's research, namely analysis of and in dichotomous frameworks of antagonism and (p. 3). Instead, volume emphasises complexity of a religious field in which actors are plentiful (government agencies, clergy, religious associations, overseas Chinese, etc.), engage in strategies that, beyond conflict or competition, also include cooperation and adaptation, and ultimately all attempt to implement modern category of religion. The institutionalisation of religions therefore takes place in a context in which state and are mutually constitutive (pp. 5-6).To some extent, book's inspiration comes from work of Talal Asad and idea that the processes by which situations are adapted to modern definition of are (p. 7). Four types of political processes are identified in Yoshiko Ashiwa and David L. Wank's stimulating introductory essay and are exemplified by various articles (pp. 12-17): Politics within state (i.e., debates within state apparatus about how to institutionalise religion); state imposition of religion (as a category) on and its outcomes; accommodation of state institutions by religions (i.e., strategies of different religions to adapt to category of religion, for example by suppressing activities that might be considered superstitious); and popular institution and politics of (i.e., how popular religious undertakings may contribute to shape politics of religion).The contributions included in volume cover five main religions (Buddhism, Daoism, Catholicism, Protestantism, and Islam) plus a case-study of popular and an article on qigong. In addition, a study by Timothy Brook provides some insight into late-imperial origins of regulatory state, and highlights elements of continuity between Confucian and Republican/Communist hostilities to religion.With examples drawn mainly from Buddhism, Yoshiko Ashiwa discusses two periods (the Republican period and era beginning with reform and opening) and shows how state and have aggressively moved to create their systems and position themselves vis-a-vis other (...) (p. 70). Richard Madsen and Lizhu Fan study case of Catholic pilgrimage to Sheshan, on outskirts of Shanghai, and explain various layers of meaning it has had across history up to present, as a result of which no one is able to fully control cult. Carsten T. Valla explores training of China's Protestant leadership and shows totally counterproductive nature of state attempts to shape compliant pastors (and impose state views on religion). David L. Wank's article builds on fieldwork conducted in Xiamen (Nanputuo monastery) to introduce diverse phases of a local Buddhist revival and evolving strategies of different actors to accommodate religious discourse of state and strengthen their position. …

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and the Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. By Charlene E. Makley. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2007. xvii + 374 pp. $60.00 cloth, $24.95 paper

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and the Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. By Charlene E. Makley. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2007. xvii + 374 pp. 24.95 paper - Volume 2 Issue 2

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. Charlene E. Makley

Previous articleNext article No AccessReviewsThe Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. Charlene E. Makley Sara FriedmanSara Friedman Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The China Journal Volume 62Jul., 2009 Published on behalf of the Australian Centre on China in the World at the Australian National University Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/tcj.62.20648118 Views: 19Total views on this site Copyright The China JournalPDF download Crossref reports no articles citing this article.

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. By Charlene E. Makley

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post-Mao China. By Charlene E. Makley

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post‐Mao China by Charlene M. Makley

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post‐Mao China by <i>Charlene M. Makley</i>

The Influence of Chinese Master Taixu on Buddhism in Vietnam

From the 1920s, Vietnamese Buddhist reformers revitalized their religion, inspired in great part by the Chinese monk Taixu’s blueprint to modernize and systematize sangha education and temple administration, and by his idea of renjian fojiao , “Buddhism for this world,” emphasizing the centrality of education, modern publishing, social work, and Buddhist lay groups to Buddhism’s future in the modern world. This article first discusses the Chinese Buddhist revival, then the activities of Buddhist reformers in Vietnam 1920s–60s, and the flows of Buddhist personnel and materials between Vietnam and China. This article explores how renjian fojiao was interpreted and realized in Vietnam, especially its influence upon Thich Nhat Hanh as he developed his ideas on “Engaged Buddhism.”

Enlightenment in dispute: the reinvention of Chan Buddhism in seventeenth-century China

Conventions and Explanatory Notes Chronology Introduction Part I: The Context of Seventeenth-Century China 1. Reenvisioning Buddhism in the Late Ming 2. The Literati and Chan Buddhism 3. The Rise of Chan Buddhism Part II: The Principle of Chan 4. Clashes among Enlightened Minds 5. The Divergence of Interpretation 6. The Yongzheng Emperor and Imperial Intervention Part III: Lineage Matters 7. The Debate about Tianhuang Daowu and Tianwang Daowu in the Late Ming 8. The Lawsuit about Feiyin Tongrong's Wudeng yantong in the Early Qing 9. The Aftermath Part IV: Critical Analysis 10. Explaining the Rise and Fall of Chan Buddhism 11. The Pattern of Buddhist Revival in the Past Concluding Remarks Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Glossary Abbreviations of Dictionaries and Collections Notes Bibliography Index

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post‐Mao China – By Charlene E. Makley

The Violence of Liberation: Gender and Tibetan Buddhist Revival in Post‐Mao China – By Charlene E. Makley

Reconfiguring Security: Buddhism and Moral Legitimacy in Cambodia

The issue of security has recently gained acute relevance for theoreticians and policymakers, but the way in which culture relates to security has yet to be given the attention it deserves. This article argues that all discourses and practices of security – ours as well as those of others – are cultural in nature, are historically positioned, and therefore inescapably plural. The article uses a case study of today's revival of Buddhism in Cambodia to illustrate how an anthropological approach may be applied in order to begin challenging the inherent ethnocentricity of much security theory. It explores a particular indigenous scheme of security, and how that scheme relates to power and moral legitimacy. The way Cambodians understand and deal with danger should, it is contended, alert us to the need for social scientists and policymakers to seek culturally sensitive understandings of security. This may help us make sense of local behaviour that may seem unreasonable according to our values; it can provoke us to check and refine our theory rather than indiscriminately apply it; and it may help limit the hegemony of privileged systems of ideas and the violence these can sometimes do to disempowered systems.

Two Buddhisms in Contemporary Mongolia

In a recent overview of the ‘two Buddhisms’ thesis of Buddhism in the West, Paul Numrich argued for the continued validity of this typology. In particular, through an extensive overview of current scholarship, he convincingly showed that the oft-noted dichotomy between immigrant Buddhism and western convert Buddhism remains a valuable heuristic tool. At the same he also suggested various avenues for further research. One such topic was the need to relate these developments of ethnic/convert and traditionalist/modern dichotomies in the West with the broader realities in the Buddhist communities of Asia (Numrich 2003, 70). To this end I would like to outline in this study how the Buddhist revival in contemporary Mongolia relates not only to the heuristic value of the two Buddhisms in Asia, but also to historiographical issues concerning the study of the Dharma.

Monastic Politics and the Local State in China: Authority and Autonomy in an Ethnically Tibetan Prefecture

Previous articleNext article No AccessMonastic Politics and the Local State in China: Authority and Autonomy in an Ethnically Tibetan PrefectureBen HillmanBen Hillman Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The China Journal Volume 54Jul., 2005 Published on behalf of the Australian Centre on China in the World at the Australian National University Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.2307/20066065 Views: 85Total views on this site Citations: 11Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright The China JournalPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Gideon Elazar Searching for Shangrila: Existential Authenticity, Buddhist Revival, and Ethnic Empowerment on the Sino-Tibetan Frontier, Modern China 48, no.44 (Feb 2022): 878–907.https://doi.org/10.1177/00977004211073513Theo Stapleton, Yu Tao The Emergence of Transcultural Humanistic Buddhism through the Lens of Religious Entrepreneurship, Asian Studies Review 46, no.22 (Sep 2021): 312–330.https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2021.1970105Ray X. L. Qu Popular Religion Temples in Fujian, Southeast China: The Politics of State Intervention, 1990s–2010s, Modern China 47, no.44 (Jan 2020): 441–471.https://doi.org/10.1177/0097700419899038Greg C. Bruno Managing the Buddha at Nālandā. China, India, and the Control of Tibetan Buddhism, (Jan 2022): 153–179.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-33776-6_8Kuei-min Chang , The China Quarterly 242 ( 2020): 440.https://doi.org/10.1017/S030574101900122XTony Saich State-Society Relations in the People’s Republic of China Post-1949*, Brill Research Perspectives in Governance and Public Policy in China 1, no.11 (May 2016): 1–57.https://doi.org/10.1163/24519227-12340001Jane Caple Faith, Generosity, Knowledge and the Buddhist Gift: Moral Discourses on Chinese Patronage of Tibetan Buddhist Monasteries, Religion Compass 9, no.1111 (Nov 2015): 462–482.https://doi.org/10.1111/rec3.12181Emily T. Yeh Blazing Pelts and Burning Passions: Nationalism, Cultural Politics, and Spectacular Decommodification in Tibet, The Journal of Asian Studies 72, no.22 (May 2013): 319–344.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911812002227Fernanda Pirie The Limits of the State: Coercion and Consent in Chinese Tibet, The Journal of Asian Studies 72, no.11 (Mar 2013): 69–89.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911812001805Colin Mackerras Tibet studies in Australia, Hong Kong and Singapore, Asian Ethnicity 12, no.33 (Oct 2011): 265–283.https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2011.605542Ben Hillman, Lee-Anne Henfry Macho Minority, Modern China 32, no.22 (Aug 2016): 251–272.https://doi.org/10.1177/0097700405286186