Modern Buddhist Research Articles

Continuity and Change in Chinese Buddhist Discourse on Translation: Conceptions of Translation in Modern Buddhist Translator Guidelines

This essay examines modern Buddhist conceptions of translation, and how these replicate or modify discourses from the classical tradition. It focuses on the Buddhist Text Translation Society (BTTS), a California-based society established in 1970, whose mission is the translation of Chinese Buddhist sutras. The society’s broader guidelines for translation as laid down by its founder, Hsuan Hua, contain a short list of eight translator attributes and behaviours which each translator must abide by. These Eight Guidelines show similarities with a classical discourse by the monk-translator Yan Cong (557–610), known as the Eight Prerequisites. The essay argues the modern guidelines may be read as a recontextualization of Yan Cong’s work that replicates many of its discursive positions while at the same time showing changes that relate to the different geographical and temporal context of the BTTS. In addition to such “geotemporal recontextualization”, the essay also considers “generic recontextualization”, in which the Eight Guidelines are used in other genre contexts, in particular as prefatory paratexts to the society’s published translations. The guidelines are seen to be not merely instructions for translation but to encapsulate a distinctively Buddhist approach that sees translation as both a form of collaborative religious learning and of spiritual cultivation, and that brings traditional East Asian modes of translation practice into a modern western context. The essay concludes with reflections on the balance between continuity and change in such discourse, and suggests this balance might be conceptualized in Buddhist terms.

근대 중국불교의 신(新)유식 사상의 등장과 논쟁 재고

근대 중국불교의 신(新)유식 사상의 등장과 논쟁 재고

'Doing good: Local and global understandings of Buddhism in Hong Kong’s Umbrella Movement'

In this paper, I present Hong Kong Buddhism as a construct of modernity, particularly in its emphasis on tradition. 'Modern Buddhism' shapes how Buddhists in the city reflect on their religion and their being in the world. The latter is seen in how Hong Kong Buddhists responded to the 2014 Umbrella Movement. Although the Umbrella Movement was in essence a political movement seeking universal suffrage, it indirectly highlighted the importance of religion in the everyday lives of Hong Kong middle-class residents. While some Buddhists went to the protest sites, others stayed at home to meditate, and many decided to disengage from the protests altogether. While differing in terms of civic engagement, there is significant similarity in these narratives regarding the perception of how to act as 'good' Buddhists. Normal 0 false false false EN-GB JA X-NONE /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:Table Normal; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Calibri,sans-serif; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:Times New Roman; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB; mso-fareast-language:JA;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:Table Grid; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-priority:39; mso-style-unhide:no; border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Calibri,sans-serif; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:Times New Roman; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB; mso-fareast-language:JA;}

Branding a New Buddhist Movement: The New Kadampa Tradition’s Self- Identification as “Modern Buddhism”

This article examines the New Kadampa Tradition’s North American missionary deployment of the epithet “Modern Buddhism” in publicity, text, and teaching. I argue that while “Modern Buddhism” branding supports the NKT’s international growth by promoting its founder’s teachings as universally accessible and not Tibetan, those teachings are more continuous with traditional Geluk doctrine than with David McMahan’s (2008) portrayal of Buddhist modernism. Specifically, I find minimal evidence of detraditionalization, demythologization, and psychologization in the NKT founder’s 2011 book Modern Buddhism and in public meditation instruction derived therefrom at a Canadian NKT center. My findings locate the NKT’s deployment of the “Modern Buddhism” brand within a graduated missionizing strategy that combines promotional modernism and pedagogical traditionalism to attract North American non-Buddhists by offering culturally desired, this-worldly benefits (e.g., stress reduction) followed by less familiar, other-worldly Buddhist goals (e.g., happiness in future lives).

'Buddhist Contramodernism: Shinnyo-en’s Reconfigurations of Tradition for Modernity'

Shinnyo-en, and other twentieth-century Buddhist lay movements emerging from older monastic and temple institutions, reconfigures elements of “traditional” Buddhism and “folk” religion to meet the conditions of modernity. Shinnyo-en’s founders and their successors envisioned a particular strategy for being Buddhist in modernity, one which aligns with some, but not all, scholarly characterizations of Buddhist modernism. As a result, Shinnyo-en and other lay organizations have largely remained on the margins of Buddhist studies despite their apparent popularity and proliferation. This article offers a new category for theorizing and positioning such organizations as contramodern —connected with, but divergent from mainstream forms of Buddhist modernism. In this light the emergence of Shinnyo-en in the 1930s, and the soteriological centrality of its founders’ lives, can be better understood in their historical and social contexts as being both connected to over one-thousand years of Shingon tradition and completely unique. The concept of contramodernism opens scholarly discussion of the many forms of Buddhism extant in modernity to those movements and organizations that are historically new, yet not entirely modernist.

Does the Buddhist doctrine of non-self denies the concept of subject?

The object of this research is the Buddhist doctrine of non-self; while the subject is the content of this doctrine and its evolution with the course of time. Special attention is given to demonstration of the fact that initially the Anatta doctrine did not imply the denial of existence of the subject (self) as such. The author examines such aspects of the topic as the doctrine of non-self in the early Buddhism (Pāli Canon) and the problem of interpretation of the phenomenon of self in modern Buddhism, including by such cultural and philosophical figures as Ngawang Lobsang Tenzin Gyatso (14th Dalai Lama). The novelty of the conducted research consists in carrying out the first in Russia comprehensive study of Buddhist doctrine of non-self and outlining a new perspective on the problem. The author’s special contribution is lies in translations of the passages from Sutta dedicated to Anatmavada, which allowed formulating the fundamentally new conclusions. The following conclusions were made: 1) throughout history, Anatmavada underwent a difficult path from solely soteriological teaching that did not imply denial of self or subject to the open denial of subject in Buddhism of later period (the author sees recent interpretation of Anatmavada as incorrect); 2) two concepts of Anatta in early Buddhism can be determined: more common Anatmavada-2 and more “marginal” Anatmavada-1, which tends to denial of Anatta; 3) Anatmavada has evolved over the course of history from Anatmavada-2 to more nominalistic interpretations observed in the Buddhism of later period in form of the denial of self as such; 4) early Buddhism is not interested in ontological discourse on the existence of self; 5) Skandha in early Buddhism should be viewed from soteriological perspective – as a subject for meditation on the emergence, existence and elimination of certain moments of experience.

From Buddhist Modernism to Buddhist Cosmopolitanism?

From Buddhist Modernism to Buddhist Cosmopolitanism?

An analysis of Yongseong Jinjong’s attempt to modernize Buddhism and its limitations

용성에 대한 기존 연구는 민족불교론에서 접근한 성과가 대부분이지만, 그의 생애 후반기는 오히려 불교 근대화를 추진하였던 면모가 두드러지게 드러난다. 이러한 경향은 선을 여성에게 개방한 것과 불전 번역에서 잘 드러난다. 용성은 대각교에서 부인선원을 개설하고 여성에게 선을 개방하였다. 다만 용성이 전통적인 선을 지향하였던 만큼 근대 여성이 각성하는 지도원리로서 선이 작용한 것이 아니라는 한계를 갖고 있다. 한편, 용성의 불전 번역은 근대 계몽기 지식인들이 번역과 출판 사업을 문명화의 과제로 공유하던 문제인식이나 기독교에 대한 대응에서 자극을 받아 이루어졌다. 특히 용성의 번역은 1920년대 전반기에서 국한문체 위주의 번역에서 1920년대 후반 이후에는 순한글로 문체가 변화하였다. 용성은 불교 잡지를 통해 이러한 글쓰기의 변화를 이해하고 수용한 것으로 추측된다. 다만 그의 번역은 조선시대 이래 성행된 전통적인 불전을 대상으로 한 것이고, 근대학문적인 방법론이나 근대적인 재해석을 거친 것이 아니라는 한계가 있다. 용성이 불교의 근대화를 모색하면서 보인 한계는 이른바 ‘대처’ 문제에 대한 현실인식에서 드러난다. 승려의 결혼이 확산된 현상은 일본에서 근대 국민국가의 수립과 관련된 정책에서 비롯된 것이며, 재가주의 불교를 중심으로 한 불교의 근대화를 모색하는 과정과 관련된다. 나아가 식민지조선에서 지식인승려들의 결혼은 불교의 사회적 실천과 관련된 문제인식과 관련된다. 이러한 문제와 현실인식을 배제하고 승려의 결혼이라는 현상을 단순히 계율의 문제로 환원하거나 일본불교의 영향이라고 단순화시켜 이해하는 것은 당대 역사상과 거리가 있다.Considering Yongseong is a traditional Zen Master, it is notable that he presented various directions for Buddhist reform and made an effort to materialize those ideas. In particular, Yongseong’s achievement is representative of the practices in pursuit of the modernization of Buddhism, such as opening up of Zen to women and the translation of various Buddhist scripture, which have remained relatively unnoticed. Yongseong opened the Zen Center for Women in Daegakgyo[大覺敎] which he founded. In the Zen Center, women not only practiced Zen but also held leadership positions. Given the exclusion of women from Zen centers as customary practice, Yongseong’s decision to get women engaged with practicing Zen in the center can be viewed as a sign of modernization of Buddhism. However, there are limitations in that Zen did not function as a guiding principle for women to be awakened, as well as to act as an individual subject. Yongseong is a representative figure who translated the Buddhist sacred text during the Japanese occupation of Korea. The way in which he translated Buddhist text changed from a mixed style of writing Korean with Chinese characters, in it in the early 1920s, to that of only Han-geul in the late 1920s. This stylistic change reflected the establishment of the Korean language, especially the formation of unity of speech and writing in the 1910s, which has been pursued since the late Chosûn Dynasty. However, Yongseong s translation of Buddhist scriptures showed some limitations. For example, most of the Buddhist texts translated by Yongseong were valued in the Buddhism of the Chosûn Dynasty, and they did not go beyond the structure of pre-modern Buddhist thought. Furthermore, his translation has some shortcomings in that it was neither informed by the methodology of the modern disciplinary approach nor by a renewal of given interpretations of the text. The limitations of Yongseong’s pursuit of the modernization of Buddhism can be exemplified in his opposition to marriage for monks. Yongseong criticized marriage for monks from the perspective of seeing the issue as a matter of discipline. However, the prevalence of monk marriage can not be regarded as a traditional discipline issue nor as a unilateral influence of Japanese Buddhism. The practice of marriage for monks became prevalent in modern Japan as a result of the government s policy of reclassifying being a monk to a vocation, rather than being one of status, which was promoted as part of modernization of Japanese Buddhism. In addition to this, emphasis needs to be put on the fact that the formation of modern Buddhism in East Asia was dominated by the Buddhist circles who led the ascetic life of Buddhism in their own homes.

A Chinese Buddhist Ecological Narrative: From the Pure Land to the “Beautiful Country” of Xi Jinping

ABSTRACT The practice of adapting discourse to cultural and political circumstances is a recurring theme in Buddhist history in China. Today, as for all the religious institutions in China, Buddhism must respond to Chinese government ideology, including the official call to improve environmental conditions in the country. The Chinese Buddhist Association takes its discourse from the ecological adaptation or interpretation of Buddhist modernism, especially from “Humanistic Buddhism,” and also incorporates political rhetoric. As Buddhism is one of the most influential and widespread religions in Chinese society, it is possible to find different Buddhist ecological narratives. Nevertheless, current developments of the government with the new constitution shifting interpretations of Chinese socialism are eroding the spiritual aspects of Buddhist ecological discourse.

Woman’s Status in the Kalmyk and Buryat Buddhist Tradition: History and the Current State

The article deals with the problem of the woman’ status in the history of Buddhism of the Mongol-speaking peoples of Russia, such as the Kalmyks and the Buryats. Special attention is paid to the female clergy issue in the religious history of these indigenous groups. The authors note that with the spread of Buddhism, women in Buryatia and Kalmykia acquired a higher social and religious status, which is enshrined in legal documents. At the same time, in the traditional Kalmyk and Buryat society a woman was generally excluded from active social life and could not make a career in the religious sphere. In the 20th century, the position of Kalmyk and Buryat women in the society underwent significant societal changes. The Soviet state sought to involve the women of Kalmykia and Buryatia into building a new society, actively fighting against the Buddhist religion and conducting the nation-wide atheistic propaganda. All these contributed to the significant decrease in the religiosity of the population in these regions, including its female part. Today, the position of women in the religious life of Kalmykia and Buryatia is characterized as ambivalent. On one hand, in traditional Buddhist organizations women can only occupy the positions of worshipers, secular employees, or perform certain religious duties during rites. On the other hand, the women’s role in the laity is more significant. They take an active part in the life of Buddhist communities and organizations, study Buddhist philosophy and medicine. Buddhist activists in modern Buddhist communities in these regions of Russia make a great contribution to the revival of Buddhism. Even though the majority of the Buddhist clergy is made up by men, these are women who constitute the majority of lay practitioners both in Kalmykia and Buryatia

옥관빈의 근대 중국불교혁신운동과 불자약창 설립 -안창호 계몽사상과의 연계성을 중심으로-

옥관빈의 근대 중국불교혁신운동과 불자약창 설립 -안창호 계몽사상과의 연계성을 중심으로-

Buddhist Modernism Underway in Bhutan: Gross National Happiness and Buddhist Political Theory

This article synthesizes and clarifies the significance of the last half-century’s developments in Bhutan’s politics within the frame of Buddhist political thought. During this time, Bhutan has held a curious position in the international community, both celebrated as a Buddhist Shangri-La defending its culture in the face of globalized modernity, and at times, criticized for defending its heritage too conservatively at the expense of ethnic minorities’ human rights. In other words, Bhutan is praised for being anti-modern and illiberal and denounced for being anti-modern and illiberal. As an alternative to understanding Bhutan vis-à-vis this unhelpful schema, and in order to better grasp what exactly is underway in Bhutan’s political developments, I read Bhutan’s politics from within the tradition of Buddhist political literature. I argue that the theory of governance driving Bhutan’s politics is an example of Buddhist modernism—both ancient and modern, deeply Buddhist and yet manifestly inflected by western liberalism. To elucidate Bhutan’s contiguity with (and occasional departures from) the tradition of Buddhist political thought, I read two politically-themed Buddhist texts, Nāgārjuna’s Precious Garland and Mipham’s Treatise on Ethics for Kings, drawing out their most relevant points on Buddhist governance. I then use these themes as a lens for analyzing three significant political developments in Bhutan: its recent transition to constitutional monarchy, its signature policy of Gross National Happiness, and its fraught ethnic politics. Reading Bhutan’s politics in this manner reveals the extent to which Buddhist political thought is underway in this moment. Bhutan’s Buddhist-modernist theory of governance is a hybrid political tradition that evinces a lasting commitment to the core values of Buddhist political thought while at the same time being responsive to modern geopolitical and intellectual influences.

Myanmar Traditional Medicine: The making of a national heritage

AbstractIn the aftermath of independence, obtained in 1948, the Burmese government launched a project to valorize and promote traditional medicine which comprised the institutionalization and standardization of the teaching, practice, and production of medicines. The government justified this project by asserting the importance of protecting and improving—in terms of both quality and accessibility—this precious national heritage. Having contributed to the maintenance of people's health for centuries, it was nevertheless under threat of vanishing because of the dominance of biomedicine and because traditionally it had been passed down through a plurality of lineages using an esoteric language. Although recognizing the official motivation behind this project, this article suggests that it was also motivated by the need to unify and ‘Burmanize’ the country in the name of nation-building. Indeed, constructing a medicine that could compete with biomedicine, if not overtake it, would help in marking the country's distance and autonomy vis-a-vis the West. Spreading a standardized medicine, largely based on the Burman tradition, across the country would help eliminate inter-ethnic differences as well as the esoteric elements inherent in traditional medicine that were perceived as a potential threat to the state's authority. While claiming to protect a national heritage, the state was in fact crafting a new heritage that complied with a specific image of the nation—a unified modern Buddhist nation—in order to help it attain its political goals. The article also discusses to what extent this project has been successful by examining the limits of its implementations and the response of healers and manufacturers.

Of Emptiness and Revolution

Abstract Lu Xun 魯迅 (1881–1936) has remained a most prominent figure in modern Chinese literary studies, but not so in modern Buddhism scholarship. This article shows the interlacing of Lu Xun's revolutionary vision with Buddhism on three primary terrains: his indebtedness to his teacher Zhang Taiyan 章太炎 (1868–1936), his immersion in a wide range of Buddhist texts before the May Fourth movement, and a close reading of selected poems from Yecao 野草 (Wild Grass) in light of Buddhist philosophy. The author argues that Yogācāra conceptions promoted by Zhang, wanfa weixin 萬法唯心 (all phenomena are nothing but mind), bushi 佈施 (the bodhisattva ideal of sacrificial giving), and kong 空 (emptiness as boundless potentiality), greatly influenced Lu Xun's aesthetics. Ultimately, this article shows how revolution, the dominant mode of secularism, is theistically conditioned. The Buddhist notion of emptiness, rather than an impediment to modernity, informs the worldly action of revolution and the phenomenal possibility of change.

'Branding a New Buddhist Movement: The New Kadampa Tradition’s Self- Identification as “Modern Buddhism”'

'Branding a New Buddhist Movement: The New Kadampa Tradition’s Self- Identification as “Modern Buddhism”'

Masculinity and Femininity: Comparing and Contrasting Two Modern Buddhist Movements in Taiwan, Foguang Shan and Ci Ji

This article examines how modern Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by its interactions with the modern world. For our purposes, ‘modern Chinese Buddhism’ refers to a form of what has become known in the West as ‘Engaged Buddhism,’ but in Chinese is known by titles that can be translated as ‘Humanistic Buddhism’ or ‘Buddhism for Human Life.’ This tradition was initiated on the Chinese mainland between the two World Wars by the monk Tai Xu (1890–1947). Its main branches have flourished in Taiwan, whence two of them have spread worldwide. The most successful, at least in numerical terms, has been Fo Guang Shan (the Buddha’s Light Mountain) and Ci Ji (the Buddhist Compassion and Relief Society), the former founded by a personal disciple of Tai Xu, Xing Yun, the latter founded by Zheng Yan. Both of them are now very old but remain powerful charismatic leaders.

Проблема дихотомии в классификации буддийских сообществ на Западе

The article reveals the concept of “two Buddhisms”, which distinguishes two key categories among Buddhist communities in the West: “ethnic”, represented by immigrants from Asian Buddhist countries and their descendants, and “converts”, or adherents of Western origin. This division into Asian and non-Asian Buddhists is often described as one of the main features of Buddhism in the West.The author concludes that the existing concept in its current form is outdated and requires revision and updating. However, the recognition of such approach as “outdated” in the research of modern Buddhism in Western countries is akin to the recognition of the “outdated” real picture of Buddhism in the West, which even in its modernity demonstrates two different approaches to the implementation of Buddhist teachings. This attitude also leads to the loss of high-quality scientific tools in theoretical and methodological aspects.

Модернизация конфуцианства, буддизма и даосизма в Китае (XX–XXI вв.)

This article presents a study of the main trends in the development of traditional Chinese philosophy in the XX–XXI centuries. The transformation of the ideas of Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, influenced by Western thought are shown. The reasons for this transformation are indicated. The analysis of the philosophy of “new Confucianism” is given, the stages of its formation are revealed. There is presented the exposition of the teachings of the key representatives of the new Confucianism represented by three generations of followers of the teachings of Confucius, who were influenced by Western philosophers, especially I. Kant, A. Bergson, M. Heidegger. The philosophy of “new Confucianism” is charac­terized as a doctrine that tries to combine the traditional values of the West and the East, material and spiritual. The transformation of the ideas of Buddhism is re­vealed in the context of the analysis of the main provisions of modern Buddhism. The causes of the movement for the renewal of Buddhism are shown. There are given the views of the main ideologists of the renewal Yan Wenhui (1837‒1911), which called for democratizing Buddhist institutions, secularizing Buddhist educa­tion, using the achievements of Western culture, as well as his student Tai Xu (1894‒1947), who put forward the idea of humanistic Buddhism. The content of the idea of Tai Xu about humanistic Buddhism, the essence of which is to improve a person’s life in real reality, and not in future rebirth, as well as its need to serve the interests of society, is presented. The modernization of Taoism is shown in line with the general modernization of traditional Chinese philosophy, which focuses on humanistic values. It is shown that the modern development of the philosophy of Taoism affects all aspects of human life, both physiological and social. Particular emphasis is placed on the relationship between man and nature, man and society.

제주 근대불교의 민족운동 재인식

본 고찰은 3 · 1운동 100주년에 즈음하여 제주 근대불교의 항일운동과 민족운동을 새롭게 보기를 제안하는 글이다. 즉 법정사 항쟁 발발 100년과 3 · 1운동 100주년을 맞는 시점에서 제주 불교의 민족운동에 대한 새로운 전망을 시도하려는 글이다.BR 지금껏 제주의 항일운동은 제주의 지방사, 항일운동사, 종교운동사의 관점에서 연구되고 서술되었다. 그러나 추후에는 기존 관점인 제주도 차원을 유의하면서도 운동의 성격 및 위상을 역사적, 사상적 맥락 하에서 모색하자고 제언한다.BR 이런 배경에서 필자는 법정사 항일운동의 이념 및 특성을 피력하고자 한다. 그리고 제주근대불교의 민족운동의 모색을 새로운 관점에서 바라보자고 제안하였다. 그는 기존 항일적 관점에서 벗어나 민족불교론에서 보자는 것이다. 요컨대 항일뿐만 아니라 자주, 자각의 관점에서 행해진 민족의식의 노선도 우호적 입장에서 보자는 것이다.BR 이런 입론에서 필자는 박만하, 관음사 등록(1918), 봉려관의 산천단 재건(1933), 선학원 제주분원인 월정사(1938), 제주 항일 단파방송 사건(1944) 등을 거론하고자 한다. 지금껏 이런 주제에 대해서는 연구자들의 관심이 미약하였다. 특히 월정사와 단파방송 사건은 그 중요성에도 불구하고 일체의 접근이 부재하였다. 그래서 필자는 그 관련 자료를 발굴하여 이번 기회에 진실에 접근하고자 하였다.BR 필자의 이 글이 제주 근대불교, 근대불교 민족운동, 불교의 항일운동 등의 연구에 참고가 되길 기대한다.

Buddhist Antecedents to the Body Scan Meditation

This article explores the historical background to the body scan practiced in MBSR by tracing it back via vipassanā meditation taught in Myanmar to a particular interpretation of the third step in the canonical instructions on mindfulness of breathing. Although the body scan as such would presumably have been unknown in early Buddhism, its practice does appear to have developed from an aspect of perhaps the most popular meditation practice in ancient and modern Buddhist traditions: mindfulness of breathing.