Buddhist Culture Research Articles

Buddhism, Aryan Discourse, Racism, and the Influence of Christianity in Colonial Ceylon

abstract: Evidence from the Pali texts suggests that the Buddha opposed judging people on the grounds of their place of birth, their ethnic identity, or their skin color. In practice, however, Buddhist traditions have not been and are not free of such judgments. This article illustrates this through a case study of Buddhism in colonial and postcolonial Ceylon, with particular reference to the Aryan theory. It argues that the language of race and nation that emerged among Buddhists in this context was influenced by three factors: the academic work of European linguists and ethnographers; Christian missionary representations of Buddhism; and readings of Pali texts that attributed the term ariya (noble, good, pure) to Buddhist communities. The article first examines the concept of ariya (Pali; Sanskrit: ārya ) in the Theravada Buddhist tradition. It then surveys the discourse in colonial Ceylon on the term "Aryan," including the involvement of Christian leaders and the Buddhist internalization of the discourse in the context of Christian missionary activity, as seen particularly in the writings of the Anagārika Dharmapāla (1864–1933). Another strand in the discourse is then isolated, namely the "othering" of the minority, "Dravidian" Tamils in colonial Ceylon, and the consequences of this in the postcolonial period. Finally, the article asks whether this case study can offer insights into the fault lines within Buddhist cultures, and indeed, Christian cultures, that could give rise to racism.

Strengthening the Protection of Buddhist Culture in Bhutan

Strengthening the Protection of Buddhist Culture in Bhutan

Regional deity beliefs and concepts of the Wanni Hathpattuwa

Wanni Hathpaththuwa is located in the upper part of the Kurunegala district in the present North Eastern province, which is in the region between Deduru Oya and Kala Oya. Many unique cultural features have emerged in this village society which was created based on the "Wew gammana". Like other parts of the island, this area has many unique religious concepts. The purpose of this research was to study the reasons and their nature that influenced the creation of indigenous religious beliefs, based on it. Data for the research were collected through field exploration, participant observation, and interviews. A manuscript containing poems sung during a ritual called "Bath Malava" was mainly used for the research. In this ritual, there are several concepts that they worship. "Ayyanayaka", "Kadawara", "Kambili", "Kalu Dewatha", "Handun Kumara" are among them. Also, there is another religious figure unique to this region called "Anguruwelle Muththa". There are many poems describing the genesis and other characteristics of that deities. For example, people believe that deities like "Aiyanaka", "Kadavara" and "Kambili" are not indigenous and migrated to this country from India. Among them, “Kalu Devatha” is believed to be the son of “Walli amma” and the god “Kataragama”. The other thing mentioned in these recitals is that all these gods are Buddhists. Although these religious concepts were primarily based on Tamil culture, it can be believed that people integrated these religious concepts into Buddhist culture.

Buddhist culture as a safeguard for the subjective happiness of Chinese residents: mitigating anxiety regarding housing prices, unemployment, and inequality.

This study examines whether Buddhist culture in China can safeguard the subjective happiness of residents by mitigating the detrimental impact of adversity. Considering Chinese traditional culture and referencing Baidu Search Index data, we focus on three sources of anxiety that are currently troubling Chinese residents: housing prices, unemployment, and inequality. We conduct logit regressiontoinvestigate the mitigating impact of Buddhist culture on anxiety. The frequency of droughts and floods that occurred during the Ming and Qing dynasties are employed as instrumental variables for the local density of Buddhist culture to avoid endogeneity problems. Empirical analysis based on microdata shows that Chinese Buddhist culture demonstrates the ability to alleviate the negative effects of housing price pressures, unemployment anxiety, and perceived inequality on subjective well-being. Mechanism analyses reveal that Chinese Buddhist culture plays a role in ameliorating the adverse impacts of housing and unemployment pressures on factors such as job satisfaction, physical health status, social trust, and expectations of future social standing. Moreover, it works to reduce inclinations toward social comparisons, thereby acting as a safeguard for happiness. Heterogeneity analysis shows that this insurance effect is more pronounced among vulnerable groups, including those in rural areas, middle-aged and elderly demographics, individuals with fewer social connections, lower social security coverage, and suboptimal health conditions. This study expands the landscape of happiness economics research and provides novel evidence about the correlation between religion and happiness. Psychotherapists may draw on certain aspects of religious philosophy in addressing mental disorders. From a governmental perspective, there is potential to effectively steer religious culture towards fostering social harmony and promoting economic development.

Unveiling Hangzhou’s Intellectual Legacy: Chinese Buddhist Reference Works and Knowledge Production in the Song and Beyond

This article explores Hangzhou’s multifaceted role in shaping Chinese Buddhist culture and contributing to knowledge production. As a vital hub of Chinese material and intellectual culture, Hangzhou’s significant contributions to Buddhism are emphasized, shedding light on its key role in disseminating Buddhist teachings and preserving knowledge. The study delves into the rich history of Buddhist reference works, particularly leishu, showcasing how these compilations were pivotal in organizing and transmitting Buddhist wisdom. The article connects Hangzhou’s intellectual legacy to the broader context of Chinese Buddhism, emphasizing its crucial position in the development and dissemination of Buddhist doctrines. Additionally, it highlights ongoing academic efforts to compile an Encyclopedia of Hangzhou Buddhist Culture, underscoring Hangzhou’s continued importance in contemporary Buddhist scholarship.

『원사(元史)』에 기록된 궁정악대(宮廷樂隊) 연구

The purpose of this study was to consider court musical bands (宫廷樂隊) in the Mongol(Yuan)empire. It is what interpreted a piece of music that is accompanied with Muscal performance procedures in Akeumwangdae (樂音王隊), Suseongdae (壽星隊), Yeakdae (禮樂隊), Seolbeopdae (說法隊), which are four court ‘musical bands’ (宮廷樂隊) of having been recorded in 『Yuan-shi(元史)』 ｢Liyuezhi(禮樂志)｣.
 In terms of 4 musical bands in the Mongol (Yuan) empire, first, Muscal performance procedures seems to having succeeded in the archetype of the previous generation, but has a difference in which a variety of mask dances appear such as ‘Mask dance with red hair and blue face (紅發青面具舞).’ Second, it is composed of Gochwiakgi (鼓吹樂器, wind and percussion instruments) in percussion instruments and wind instruments. There are diverse percussion instruments, which have been unable to be seen in the last period, such as Chalgo (札鼓) or Hwago (和鼓). Third, a musical piece has the mainstream as Sanqu (散曲), which appeared in the Yuan dynasty(元代) of being interrelated even with Yuanqu (元曲). There are also a few musical pieces that were accepted from abroad along with Buddhist culture.
 Considering the record in 『Yuan-shi (元史)』 ｢Liyuezhi (禮樂志)｣, four musical bands in the Mongol (Yuan) empire have new court music in the Mongol (Yuan) empire by which Buddhist music in Western Xia (西夏) or Xiyu (西域) was absorbed in the music culture of Mongolia race.

Din Maneviyat Tartışmaları Açısından Hilmi Ziya Ülken’in ‘Anadolu Tarihinde Dini Ruhiyat Müşahedeleri’ İsimli Makalesinin Değerlendirilmesi

One of the pioneering works in the history of religious psychology in Turkey is the article titled "Observations of Religious Psychology in Anatolian History." This article was published on June 1, 1924 (Hijri-1340) in the 13th-14th issue of the Mihrap Magazine and was written by Hilmi Ziya ULKEN. The presentations in this work were created, taking into account current topics in the psychology of religion, based on both the Ottoman Turkish original and the contemporary translation of the article. With this study, a contemporary interpretation of this century-old Ottoman Turkish article was made to understand its intended message, and its relevance to the present day was addressed. In this article, Ulken examines the lives and some mystical experiences of two historical mystical figures by presenting historical sources. It becomes apparent from Ulken's article that the importance of mystical experiences in Anatolian culture has continued throughout its historical process. The Anatolian people have placed value on metaphysical and Sufi/mystical elements. Ulken attempts to demonstrate that the mystical experiences in Anatolia are rooted more in Shaman culture than Buddhist culture and that this tradition continued during the Ottoman era. What Ulken described a century ago in this article reminds us that the quest for meaning and spirituality in contemporary psychology of religion is universal. On the other hand, in the West, some individuals searching for spirituality have stated that they do not belong to any particular religious tradition, leading to debates about changing the name of psychology of religion to "spiritual psychology." However, Ulken's attempt to show that the quest for spirituality in Anatolia, although occasionally reflecting Shaman culture, is not independent of religious traditions, demonstrates that spirituality in Anatolia is not divorced from religion, in contrast to the West. In conclusion, when examining debates in Western psychology of religion, it is important to focus on the universality of the field and make better use of past works and historical figures in Anatolian culture, rather than simply imitating Western developments. This article by Ulken is one of the Works that can help in in this regard. Key Words: Hilmi Ziya Ulken, Religious Spirituality, Mysticism, Search for Meaning, Spirituality.

文化交往与认同

Chinese Buddhism has played an undeniable role in the construction of ethnic communities through the process of communication, shaping, and reconstruction in the development of various ethnic groups in Yunnan. The dissemination of Han Buddhism in Yunnan has promoted the communication between Han culture and ethnic minorities; Ethnic minorities engage in rational communication between the culture and understanding of Chinese Buddhism, reflecting the process of ethnic integration and cultural consciousness. This study examines the cultural identity factors of various ethnic minorities in Yunnan in their communication with Chinese Buddhism, in order to analyze ethnic unity and strengthen the sense of Chinese national community. Local governments, chieftain elites, civil society, and different ethnic groups, through the absorption of Han Buddhist culture, are closely related to minority cultures, moving from inequality to equality, from heterogeneity to homogenization, and jointly constructing an ethnic culture with the strengths of a hundred schools of thought, integration and inclusiveness, melting into a Chinese culture with a sense of national community.

Modern Chinese Buddhist Culture in the Greater Hangzhou Region in Yu Dafu’s Travel Notes

Buddhism has been a significant part of Hangzhou’s rich history. Throughout the twentieth century, Hangzhou’s Buddhist culture continued to inspire many Chinese writers, one of the most prominent being Yu Dafu. The writer stayed in Hangzhou several times during the 1920s and 1930s and wrote numerous travel notes, including many describing his and his friends’ visits to temples in and around Hangzhou. These short travel notes, written in modern Chinese with the characteristics of modern prose, opened a relationship between Buddhism and Chinese literature, effectively inaugurating a fresh genre of Chinese Buddhist literature. This paper focuses on Yu Dafu’s travel notes, considers extensive historical sources, and explores how they recorded and represented Chinese Buddhist culture in Hangzhou and more broadly. This paper also explores the reciprocal influence of contemporary Hangzhou’s Buddhist culture on writers’ cognitive frameworks, spiritual solace, and literary choices.

Cult Complex in Zanskar: Analysis, Interpretation

Purpose. The study investigates a Buddhist image on a standalone stone and an offering contained in a clay vessel. The cult complex is located near Zangla, not far from the Changut Choeling female monastery, in the north of Zanskar (Ladakh, India).Results. The image depicts the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, the patron deity of Tibet. The clay vessel (73 mm in height) found near the stone contains a square iron plate (~25x25 mm) with traces of insets, one of turquois; a transparent crystal bead; and two perforated bones. An examination of the vessel contents revealed that it originally contained a piece of meat or some blood. Based on a traceological analysis of the bone items, they appear to have been worn on a cord. All the items in the vessel are of special significance in the Buddhist culture as well as folk religion of Tibet. They could have served as offerings to Avalokiteśvara as well as local patron deities – btsan and lha, who were believed to live in that stone. After all, Buddhism in Tibet became part of the folk religion. The tradition of making offerings in a vessel placed at the foot of a stone with a divine image has parallels in the culture of Central Asian Turks. Excavations of Turkic mortuaries have revealed silver, as well as ceramic, vessels at the foot of heroic figures. Researchers believe that they were used for sacrificial offerings and for drinks in funeral rituals. Like in Zanskar, such vessels were left on the surface, and over a thousand years must have passed before they became fully covered with earth so that they would later be found during excavations.Conclusion. Offerings in vessels placed at the foot of stone statues of deities and ancestors, as well as stones accommodating local patron spirits, appear to have been common among the peoples of Central Asia in the Middle Ages.

SUBJECT MATTER OF THE DECORATIVE AND APPLIED ART WORKS OF THE BURYATS AT THE TURN OF THE XX-XXI CENTURIES

The author of the article touches upon the subject matter of the Buryats’ deco-rative and applied art. The samples of the works in various materials and tech-niques in the context of the regional historical development are given. The main theme is connected with the search, recomprehension of the ancient his-tory of the peoples of the Baikal region, preservation of the artistic traditions of the nomadic and Buddhist culture.

E-Book for Promoting Buddhist Tourism in Thailand

The purposes of this research were 1) to explore a set of knowledge and develop e-book to promote Buddhist tourism in Thailand, and 2) to evaluate Thai tourists' satisfaction with the use of electronic books. The study began by exploring a set of knowledge and appropriate processes in developing e-book that would affect tourists’ travel interest. Subsequently, the satisfaction of 424 Thai tourists who were willing to test the e-book was surveyed via questionnaires in Google form. The obtained data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation). Results showed that the evaluation outcome of e-book acceptance based on TAM concept is very interesting as most of the evaluation scores are very good (4.21-5.00 because the class interval is set at 0.8) and consistent with our assumptions, that is, the content on the e-book including text and images and all information positively affects user’s interest in using it as a source of knowledge for traveling as the item “Interest in using this e-book as a source of information about tourist destinations” received the highest score ( = 4.32, S.D. = 0.48). Next is the presentation form, content structure and information layout in the item “Presentation of public relations media on the e-book has an effect on interest in Buddhist tourism.” received a very high score from volunteers (= 4.28, S.D. = 0.45). It indicates that all public relations media including images of important Buddhist landmark, architecture, messages about Buddhist culture, etc., has an positive impact on the volunteers' interest in Buddhist tourism.

Buddhism in Agrarian Society of Rural Bengal: Perspectives of Belief Systems with a Focus on Ritual and Deities

Buddhism was the State Religion of Bengal at least for more than four hundred years between mid of 8th century and 12th century during the Pala reign in Bengal. In the 2011 Indian census, the percentage of Buddhists in West Bengal was 0.31% while in Bangladesh less than 1% of the total population is now a follower of Buddhism. Most of the Buddhists were converted to Islam during the Sultanate rule in Bengal while Hinduism silently took over many of their shrines and deities. This paper is an attempt to revisit the cultural landscape of early Buddhism in Bengal along with a focus on the elements of Buddhist culture in folk life applying cultural geographical methodologies and examining the presence of Buddhist rituals and deities in agrarian society in sublime form. A literature review was followed by extensive fieldwork during festivities of the shrines of Hindu deities having a connection with early Buddhism of Bengal. Along with participant observation during ritualistic practices, interviews, and focus group discussion methods have been applied involving stakeholders to obtain qualitative data for analysis. The results reveal the various manifestations of the interplay between the process of universalization and parochialization in the dynamism of the evolving belief system of an apparently Non-Buddhist folk society of the present day, the root of the culture of which was exclusively Buddhist.

PERCEPTION OF INDIA IN CHINA AND GERMANY

Due to the spread of Buddhism and Buddhist culture to the East, Chinese travellers and pilgrims started visiting India in pursuit of Buddhist scriptures and learning of Buddhist philosophy as early as the first half of the first millennium of Common Era. These pilgrims and travellers also left the description of their travel. In the medieval and modern period also Chinese travellers, diplomats and scholars continued their journey towards India. However, the situation and perception both were different in these two periods from previous ancient era. German travellers to India started with the participation of the German soldiers in the British East India Company from the army of the Electorate of Hanover in 1782. The German nationalism grew as a reaction to the political and cultural domination of France and Britain. In their quest to find the roots of their language, they started looking at Sanskrit, Indian philosophy and culture. During the early 19th Century several German Romantics and scholars showed interest in Sanskrit literature. Some of the prominent names among them are Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Max Müller, Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt and Johann Gottfried Herder. Friedrich von Schlegel studied Sanskrit for over forty years and in 1808 he published the book Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier, wherein he argued that the prototypical “Aryans” founded the ancient European civilizations. With August Wilhelm Schlegel, the first Indology chair was started in the University of Bonn in 1819. Karl August Schlegel, the elder brother of Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel prepared a military survey of southern India for the East India Company which proved very useful.

Soft Decoloniality and Decolonising the Displays at Chiddingstone Castle, Kent

In the UK many popular misconceptions concerning Buddhist thought, practice, and material culture endure based on the colonial-era understanding of ‘Buddhism’ originating from the long 19th century. While academic Buddhist Studies has taken a more critical stance since the 1960s, a more nuanced understanding has not, by and large, percolated out of academia and dislodged earlier more simplistic ideas. Decolonising exercises such as those undertaken by national museums in the UK go some way to addressing this by presenting Buddhist cultures as dynamic and varied, and contextualising earlier colonial images of Buddhism. This constitutes a form of ‘soft decoloniality’ that addresses global cognitive justice in contrast to the ‘hard decoloniality’ of activist movements addressing global social justice. This article unpacks these ideas and discusses them in the context of an exercise to decolonise the displays in the Buddhist collection at Chiddingstone Castle, Kent: a small, independent museum based on the collections of the late Denys Eyre Bower (1905-1977), whose understanding of Buddhism was influenced by his close friend, Christmas Humphreys.

A study on the spatial distribution and historical evolution of grotto heritage: a case study of Gansu Province, China

Grottoes are a comprehensive art treasure trove that integrate architecture, sculpture, and murals. They showcase the historical spiritual civilization of humanity and provide a solid foundation for studying the dissemination and development of Buddhist culture. Gansu Province is an important node on the transmission route of Buddhist culture, constituting a relatively complete and rich history of Buddhist art and cultural history. This article uses GIS technology to systematically analyse the spatial distribution characteristics and spatiotemporal evolution patterns of grottoes in Gansu Province from the Wei Jin to the Ming and Qing dynasties and explores the main factors affecting their distribution. The results indicate the following: (1) the grottoes in Gansu Province exhibit clustering and uneven distribution characteristics, which form the core aggregation area of Qingyang Tianshui City and the secondary aggregation area of Wuwei and Zhangye City. (2) Spatiotemporal characteristics show significant changes in the number and focus of excavation and repair of grottoes in Gansu Province over the years. The Northern and Southern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, and Ming and Qing Dynasties had more grottoes than the Wei, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties. The overall centre of gravity shifted from northwest to southeast. Natural factors such as topography, stratigraphy, and hydrology and cultural factors such as politics and transportation significantly impacted the spatial pattern of grotto heritage in Gansu Province. Exploring and studying the spatial layout of grotto heritage from the perspective of historical geography is beneficial for understanding the cultural development and historical changes in Buddhism and is of great significance for the development of landscape environmental protection and utilization of grotto heritage.

“Lu Xi Yan” Yoga Studio at Zhengzhou City: New Health Culture in the Popular Cultural Society Context of China

Background and Aim: Yoga is a physical activity and its origins in Hindu and Buddhist Culture in ancient Indian societies. It was initiated in the context of Hinduism, involving The control of the body, mind, and concentration. It is expressed in various postures known as Yoga. Later, Yoga spread to ancient China through religious propagation and social relations. Yoga has been transformed from a religious practice into a type of physical activity. Therefore, become a health culture in response to health problems from using the body in various forms. Nowadays, Yoga has become a new kind of health culture that is widely popular. Yoga has become such an important activity in China’s metropolitan fitness that it has become the new popular culture of the country, which is an important phenomenon of this research. The researcher wants to find answers to the phenomenon of Yoga as a new health culture in China today. Materials and Methods: This is basic research using a qualitative research methodology. Data were collected in two ways, 1) document study about the history of Yoga and related socio-cultural contexts in both India and China, 2) fieldwork from the study of the phenomenon of Yoga studios in major cities in China, focusing on a case study at Lu Xi Yan”, Yoga Studio at Zhengzhou City. The main tools for data collection are questionnaires, interviews, and observational research frameworks. An essential piece of equipment is a still image recorder animation Voice and field notebook. Results: Yoga’s phenomena as a new health culture in the process of popular culture in the large cities of China is in the process of China’s modernization. Yoga is integrated with the development of the city, and the rapid development of popular culture, with the urban public as the main body and the main consumption object, stimulating the consumption economy, and producing the unique female consumption economy for Yoga in China, and national fitness drives fitness Yoga, Yoga, as a space, presents a variety of lifestyles, no longer only popular sports for young people, but gradually approaches the middle-aged and elderly groups. People’s pursuit of health makes Yoga form a new healthy culture. Conclusion: (1) Yoga is a body culture. It has been changing its meaning all the time. Since the beginning, the origin of Yoga has been associated with Hinduism, Brahmanism, and Buddhism from India. (2) Yoga has been adapting to a new set of social conditions that put Yoga in a new context, including the new health culture in the context of popular Culture in China. This research presents the flexibility of Yoga culture. (3) Understanding Yoga as a new health culture. Thus, showing the relationship between Indian and Chinese cultural societies in different contexts simultaneously.

THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHIST ON THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHAOLIN CULTURE

The localization and development of Buddhism in China owe much to the efforts and contributions of eminent Indian monks such as Bodhidharma in propagating Indian Buddhism. Within the development of Buddhism at Shaolin Temple, the complex theoretical doctrines and strict disciplines gradually faded away, giving rise to a unique Zen culture. The emphasis on physical practice and the cultivation of both internal and external aspects in Buddhism aligns well with the philosophy of Shaolin Kungfu, ultimately forming the distinctive system of Shaolin Kungfu. The integration of the medicine concept from Buddhism with traditional Chinese medicine resulted in the theoretical framework and treatment methods of Shaolin medicine. Moreover, the influence of Buddhist culture extends to the temple culture, pagoda forest culture, and stone inscription culture of Shaolin Temple. The methodological approach of this research is the qualitative research techniques with historical analytical method. The main objective of this research is to understand the influence of Buddhist on the formation and development of Shaolin culture. Keywords: Buddhism; Shaolin culture; Chan (Zen) culture; Kungfu culture; Medical culture

جنم مخالف (Anti-Natalism)نظریہ کا تعارف،تاریخی ارتقاء اور بنیادی مستدلات

Anti-Natalism is a primitive doctrine and nobody has a certain knowledge about its beginning. However, the ancient Greek and Buddhist civilizations claim some signs of the existence of this doctrine and its followers. Anti-Natalism is a philosophy which condemns the life and holds annihilation as superior in comparison. The believers of this doctrine have asked the people to stop reproducing human beings. They have produced various arguments in favor of their demand to forsake the birth process. This research article attempts to focus on the introduction, historical evolution and fundamental arguments of the doctrine of Anti-Natalism. This research shows that Seana Valentine Shiffirn argues that the undertaking of the birth process makes no sense since we are unable to question the person to be born about his consent prior to his birth. David Benatar is of the opinion that we have no moral justification to undergo the birth process because it results in a huge loss for the person to be born. An important name in the list of the advocates of Anti-Natalism doctrine is that of Schopenhauer who invalidates the birth process on pessimistic grounds. Similarly, Karem Akerma pleaded against the birth process on the basis of Ethical Vegetarianism. The basic concept of Ethical Vegetarianism is that all those activities that are harmful for animals should be abandoned. The key point of Dr Gerald Harrison's argument is that man is the most disastrous animal on planet earth so mankind should be eliminated from this planet which is practically possible only if the men of this age stop reproducing themselves.

A Brief Introduction to the American Buddhist Cultural Exchange during the Republic of China

A Brief Introduction to the American Buddhist Cultural Exchange during the Republic of China