Buddha Statues Research Articles

願堂 사찰, 제천 덕주사의 마애여래입상

고려시대 마애불은 전국적으로 대략 100여기가 알려져 있다. 이는 우리나라 마애불 200여기 가운데 절반에 해당하는 수량이다. 하지만, 고려시대 마애불 가운데 명문이나 관련 기록이 있어 정확한 제작 시기를 파악할 수 있는 예는 극히 적다. 이곳 제천 덕주사 마애불입상도 고려 전기 크게 유행했던 대형 마애불 가운데 하나이지만, 역시 정확한 제작 시기는 알 수 없다. 덕주사 마애불의 양식을 고려하면, 11세기 전-중반 무렵 조성한 것으로 판단된다. 덕주사 마애불입상의 얼굴 모습은 이전 시기에는 찾아볼 수 없던 새로운 미감이다. 이러한 모습은 불상의 크기가 크다는 점과 함께 중부지역 불상의 특징으로 알려졌지만, 최근 경남 고성 거류산에서 동일한 양식의 마애불이 알려지면서, 지역 구분없이 전국적으로 유행했음을 확인할 수 있다. 특히 덕주사 마애불이 위치한 월악산 인근은 영남에서 각 지역으로 이르는 길목에 있는데다가, 남한강 수로의 출발지였다. 덕주사 마애불입상과 유사한 양식의 마애불을 전국 곳곳에서 찾아볼 수 있는 것도 이런 이유일 것이다.BR 한편, 1158년 작성한 觀奧(1096~1158)의 묘지명을 통해 덕주사가 12세기 전반에는 법상종 사찰이며, 원당 사찰이었음도 알게 됐다. 관오는 그의 묘지명이 작성됐다는 사실만으로도, 그가 중앙 교단에서 활동했던 중요한 승려였음을 알려준다. 관오는 법상종 승려였다. 관오가 법상종 승려였음은 그가 출가한 승려 상지가 고려 최고의 법상종 사찰인 현화사의 승통이었으며, 관오 자신이 법상종 대표 사찰 가운데 하나인 법천사 주지를 지냈다는 사실을 통해 확인된다. 그런 그가 덕주사가 願堂이라고 밝혔다는 점, 그리고 덕주사의 승려를 불러 왕을 위한 축성도량을 열었다는 점에서 당시 덕주사의 사세를 짐작할 수 있게 한다. 이로써 덕주사 역시 법상종 사찰이었을 가능성이 매우 크며, 덕주사 마애불의 존명은 이 시기 법상종 승려와 미륵불의 관계, 13m에 이르는 덕주사 마애불의 크기로 미뤄 볼 때 미륵불로 볼 수 있다. 덕주사는 교통이 사방으로 열린 월악산에 거대한 마애불을 새기고, 나라의 안녕을 빌었던 고려 전기 대표 호국도량 가운데 하나였다.

원당암 목조아미타불좌상 복장직물의 특성

원당암 목조아미타불좌상 복장직물의 특성

Shandao’s <i>Xingfu</i> 興福 (Buddhist Welfare): On the Relationship with <i>Jiangjing</i> 講経 (Lecture on Scriptures)

Shandao engaged in many works to promote social welfare. This mainly involved building temples, creating Buddha statues and paintings, and copying scriptures. How did he raise the money?

Evaluation of efficiency of six biocides against microorganisms commonly found on Feilaifeng Limestone, China

Feilaifeng is listed as a cultural heritage site because of its abundant Buddhist statues possibly dating back to the Five Dynasties period (907 AD–960 AD). However, microorganism growth on the surface of stone results in esthetic and structural damage. Biocide treatment is commonly used to eradicate the microorganisms, and we assessed the effectiveness of four chemicals (benzalkonium chloride, octhilinone, tebuconazole, and thiabendazole) and two commercial biocides (ACTICIDE® 50 X (A) and AW-600) in inhibiting microbial colonization. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of various biocides were determined, and their efficacies were compared using the inhibition zone method. The most effective biocides were applied in situ to Feilaifeng Limestone, and the overall effects were monitored by photographic recordings and microbial cultures for a month. The factors affecting the efficacy of each biocide, such as thermal stability and loss-resistance, were also evaluated. The biocides varied markedly in their ability to inhibit the proliferation of different microorganisms. The three species of fungi tested herein demonstrated the highest susceptibility to octhilinone, but benzalkonium chloride showed the best antibacterial activity to the bacteria, Pseudomonas sp. Based on the results of in vitro assays, octhilinone, as well as its respective commercial product AW-600, were the best biocides for treating microorganisms, and 0.5% was the optimal concentration. Although the biocides on disc papers could be easily diluted by water, they were resistant to degradation by high temperatures. These findings suggest that frequent rainfall might have been the reason for the recolonization of microorganisms in a short time after octhilinone and AW-600 treatment in situ. Our results provide new insights on how to protect Feilaifeng Limestone, which is prone to damage caused by various microorganisms.

The Destruction of Buddhas: Dissonant Heritage, Religious or Political Iconoclasm?

This article attempts to explore the main impulses that might have led to the destruction of Buddha statues by Taliban in the Bamiyan Valley of Afghanistan. Drawing on existing literature, and anecdotal evidence, this article suggests that the main impulses that have led to destruction are rather linked to the overall political context of that time (i.e., political iconoclasm) rather than to pure Islamic iconoclasm or an explicit condition of disharmony in heritage (i.e., dissonant heritage). First, the Taliban did not consider the statues as "their" cultural heritage. The act of destruction, therefore, cannot be subscribed to the Afghan cultural dynamics but rather to the political–religious ideology imported by Taliban from outside of the country. Secondly, it seemed that Mullah Omar was viewing the statues as a revenue source at the beginning and as a political bargain chip at the end. In both circumstances, religion seems not to have played the main role. Lastly, the destruction seems a political iconoclasm—that is, a political exploitation, if not a direct political act. The Taliban and especially their external allies were very well aware of the consequences of the act of destruction. It seems implausible to suggest that there were no religion and/or culture in play when ordering the destruction of the statues. The latter is the least what this article aims for. However, to conclude that the destruction was solely triggered by theological and cultural factors might also be improbable. The author does not, in any way, attempt to rationalize the act of destruction, let alone justify the barbaric act.

On white marble half-lotus meditation statues carved in Wuding Era of the Eastern Wei Dynasty

Abstract In 2012, large amounts of white marble Buddhist statues of the Eastern Wei and Northern Qi Dynasties were unearthed from the Buddhist sculpture hoard at Bei Wuzhuang in Ye City Site. This paper makes a comparative study on a bodhisattva statue in meditation seated in half-lotus posture (resting right ankle on the knee of pendent left leg and holding right hand upward) among them and another sculpture of the same type and made in the same period unearthed at the Xiude Monastery site in Dingzhou; from the double-tree, stupa and coiling dragon designs shown by them, this paper explores the commonalities and differences of the Buddhist arts in these two areas. Moreover, this paper reveals that this motif emerged earlier in the Ye City area than in the Dingzhou area, and diffused to the latter after it became popular in the Ye City area. By these conclusions, this paper infers that the white marble meditating statue seated in half-lotus position with the date of the second year of Wuding Era (544 CE) in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, USA was produced in Ye City area.

Wood identification of Japanese Shinto deity statues in Matsunoo-taisha Shrine in Kyoto by synchrotron X-ray microtomography and conventional microscopy methods

Research on the wood species of Japanese Buddhist statues has an over 60 years’ history and recently many Buddhist “Ichiboku” statues carved out of a single bole made from the Nara to Heian periods were scientifically revealed to be made of Torreya nucifera. Shinto deity statues in Japan, however, have not yet been investigated scientifically. Because many Shinto deity statues are enshrined behind closed doors, there are fewer opportunities to investigate them. To examine the differences and similarities in wood selection between Buddhist and Shinto deity statues, wood identification was conducted on the 11 Shinto deity statues of Matsunoo-taisha Shrine, Kyoto, Japan, using synchrotron X-ray microtomography and conventional microscopy methods. The results indicated two female deity statues with the ink inscriptions indicating the production year of 1143 were of Torreya nucifera, one female deity statue of Zelkova serrata, and the other eight statues, i.e., two female deity statues, four male deity statues and two priestly attire deity statues of Prunus s.l. spp.

中國 山西 東南部지역의 北魏千佛碑像 考察

中國 山西 東南部지역의 北魏千佛碑像 考察

石窟庵 造營 배경과 본존불상 도상의 화엄교의적 해석

경주 토함산 석굴암 불상군은 동아시아 불교미술에서도 최고의 걸작으로 손꼽힐 만큼 우리나라 불교조각사의 위상을 대변하는 뛰어난 문화유산이다. 이 논문에서는 먼저 그 동안 선학들이 석굴암 불상군에 대해서 다각적으로 논의하는 과정에서 합의된 결론을 도출하지 못한 석굴암 조영 기간, 주체, 목적, 주석한 인물 등의 역사적인 배경에 대한 몇 가지 쟁점들을 재검토하고, 더 나아가 당시 불교계를 주도하던 의상계 화엄종의 사상이 석굴암을 조영하는데 있어 지대한 영향을 끼쳤음을 파악하였다. 다음 석굴암 불상군의 핵심을 이루는 본존불상, 그리고 본존불상과 삼위일체의 도상체계를 이루고 있는 십일면관음보살상, 문수보살상, 보현보살상 간의 관계와 배치를 의상계 화엄종의 화엄불신론에 입각하여 화엄교의적인 관점으로 해석하고 불교사적인 추이와 맥락 속에서 파악함으로써 그 신앙적 의미와 성격에 대해서 새롭게 이해하고자 하였다. 그 결과 석굴암 본존불상은 석가모니불, 아미타불, 비로자나불의 성격을 모두 圓融하고 있는 화엄법신불임을 밝혔다. 이러한 華嚴一乘의 존격을 主尊으로 신앙하는 것은 신라 의상계 화엄종의 독자적인 교의체 계에 따른 것으로서 같은 시기 주변 국가들에서 신앙된 화엄법신불과는 도상과 성격 면에서 차별된다는 사실은 특기되어야 할 것이다. 이상의 논의를 통해서 석굴 암의 중요성과 위상을 재확인할 수 있을 것으로 기대한다.

고려시대 자수 유물을 통해 본 기법연구

This study considered the craft historical value and characteristics of Goryeo Dynasty embroidery. In this study, the existing Goryeo embroidery artifacts were classified and analyzed and the data were compared with historical records of adjacent times. The Goryeo Dynasty is a time in which records of embroidery and artifacts are confirmed, and the techniques shown in embroidery artifacts are considered as extremely important feeds that can shed light on the historical contexts of Korean embroidery crafts. There are a total of 8 artifacts identified as Goryeo embroideries and can be identified as Bul-Bok-Jang-Mul(佛腹藏物, sacred objects enshrined in Buddhist statues) or passed down artifacts. Such include: Woljeongsa useum’s 〈Embroidered Incense Pouch on Complex Gauze(繡羅香囊)〉. Onyang Folk Museum’s 〈Pouch〉, a Bul-Bok-Jang-Mul of their Amitabha Buddha. Central Buddhist Museum’s 〈Incense Pouch(香囊)〉 and 〈Norigae〉, Bul-Bok-Jang-Mul of Janggoksa Temple. Songgwangsa Museum’s 〈Embroidered Twill Damask(刺繡 紋綾)〉 a Bul-Bok-Jang-Mul of Jawunsa Temple. Andong Taesa Shrine(安東 太師廟)’s 〈Embroidered Non-Patterned Twill(刺繡 無紋綾)〉. Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art’s 〈Embroidered Amitabha(刺繡 阿彌陀如來圖)〉. Museum of Korean Embroidery’s 〈Embroidered Folding Screen of Potted Plants in Four Seasons(四季盆景圖)〉. The origin and historical characteristics of each artifact were identified and the embroidery techniques and materials and patterns used were studied. Techniques can be classified into 15 types; Jeom-Su (Dot Stitch), Seun-Su(Straight Stitch), Pyeong-Su(Satin Stitch), Ga-Reum-Yi-Eum-Su(Split Stitch), Yi-Eum-Su(Outline Stitch), Ga-Reum-Su, Ja-Ryeon-Su(Long and Short Stitch), Ja-Ri-Su(Mat Stitch), Jing-Geum-Su(Couching Stitch), Mae-Deub-Su(Knot Stitch), Sok-Su(Padded Stitch), Nap-Su(Counted Stitch), Ga-Jang-Ja-Ri-Su(Blanket Stitch or Buttonhole Stitch), Sa-Seul-Jing-Geum-Su(“Chain Couching Stitch”), Ol-Lyeo-But-Im-Su(Applique). Although comparison study with the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla Period is difficult due to its lack of embroidery artifacts, it seems that most of the basic techniques, which are now called traditional embroidery, had started to be used in earnest from Goryeo Dynasty at the latest. We were also able to examine the interaction between the neighboring countries primarily with Liao Dynasty, Song and Yuan Dynasty through techniques of embroidery artifacts.

Manufacturing Techniques of Ancient Metal Buddha Statues from Archaeological Sites in Bagan, Myanmar

This study intends to identify manufacturing techniques, including casting and alloy composition, of nine metal Buddha statues excavated from archaeological sites in Bagan, Myanmar. Two Buddha statues from Pyu city state(2nd to 9th century) contain Cu-Sn alloy(including 1% Cu besides silver with no additional metallic components identified. The bronze Buddha statue manufactured in the Konbaung dynasty(18th century) is of Cu-Sn-Pb alloy. The Buddha statues of Pyu was alloy of Cu-Sn without Pb including ahigh percentage of The Buddha statues of both the Bagan and Konbaung dynasties are comprised of ternary Cu-Sn-Pb alloys, with a heterogeneous distribution of lead and tin. Some of Buddha statues of the Bagan dynasty have similar alloy ratios as those of Pyu, suggesting that similar manufacturing techniques were used.

DISCRIMINATION OF CULTURAL RELICS SIMILARITY BASED ON PHASH ALGORITHM AND SIFT OPERATOR

Abstract. Among the immovable cultural relics such as grottoes, stone carvings of the same period usually show similar artistic styles and repetitive statues. Through the study of the similarity between cultural relics in the same period, we can have reference value for the historical significance, artistic characteristics and cultural relics restoration of cultural relics. The traditional discrimination of cultural relics similarity often depends on the subjective experience judgment of experts, which is time-consuming and inefficient. Often, different experts may issue different conclusions, the lack of convincing objective evaluation basis, can not provide effective scientific support for the protection and restoration of cultural relics. In order to provide objective criteria for evaluating the similarity of cultural relics and avoid the interference of human factors, this paper proposes the concept of similarity index of cultural relics based on perceptual Hash (pHsah) algorithm. For orthophoto images of cultural relics with similarity index within the threshold, the SIFT operator is further used to find the corresponding feature points. This paper takes the Buddha statues in Yungang Grottoes as the research object, objectively calculates the similarity index of cultural relics, combines the pHash algorithm and Sift operator, realizes the objective quantitative discrimination of cultural relics similarity, effectively avoids the subjective influence of experts on the judgment of cultural relics similarity.

Religious Tolerance Through Stone Sculpture Production: The Case of Indonesian Sculptors

The purpose of this research is to analyze the value of tolerance reflected in the stone-sculpture production in Muntilan. This study used a sociology research approach with an ethnographic research design. The data collection techniques were conducted through ethnographic observation and interviews as well as document data. The results showed that the stone craft production in Muntilan is local wisdom that reflects the value of tolerance. Most of the rock artisans are Moslems, but they continued stone sculpture production that is part of the Hindhu-Buddist tradition. The product is oriented towards consumer demand, which is a contrast to the beliefs of sculptors such as Buddha statues, Hindu deities, statues of Jesus, as well as statues of other religions. The sculptures separated themselves between work and religious issues. It illustrates an open attitude as well as tolerance in accepting and understanding differences. Such local wisdom with a long-standing tolerance value in the community is a potential for community development in realizing a harmonious and peaceful life.

불상 도금법의 전통 계승과 근대적 변화

Gilding is the last and most magnificent stage in the process of producing Buddha statues. Gilding refers to the application of gold powder or leaf to Buddha statues made of various base materials, such as bronze, stone, iron, wood, clay or fabric, using an inorganic or organic medium. Gilding of the Lacquer, in which lacquer is used as an adhesive with gold leaf, is the best and most traditional method used, thanks to lacquer’s preservative and water-resistant properties and the way it allows an even gilt layer to form. The Gilding of the Lacquer process can be inferred from the many extant documents about traditional lacquerware inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Such records indicate that materials used in the production process changed from era to era, according to availability.BR Most Buddha statues investigated so far in the course of conservation and repair projects have been regilded several times since their initial production. They therefore show traces of the various other materials and techniques used up to the modern era, in addition to traditional gilding techniques. This tells us both about modern gilding techniques and the changes that led to them. Cashew lacquer began replacing natural lacquer, donkey hide glue and fish flue as an adhesive for Gilding of the Lacquer after 1962, when it was first produced in Korea. Spray painting techniques used in woodwork and car painting were also applied for gilding Buddha statues. This began with the application of lacquer to body parts of statues to protect gold powder gilt, later moving on to the application of a mixture of polyurethane resin and fake gold powder. On some Buddha statues, fake gold powder was applied to both the Buddha’s body and robes. Such appropriation of new materials and changes in production techniques brought reduced costs and raised productivity, creating entirely new Gilding of the Lacquer techniques. Gilding of the Lacquer was transformed and simplified, resulting in a process that omitted the wood-filling and lacquer layering stages. This transformation also led to a diversification of artisans. These changes can be seen as aligned with the spirit of the modern age and its pursuit of diversity and rationality.BR Fortunately, some gilders continue to use traditional Gilding of the Lacquer materials and techniques close to their original forms. This is because the study of continuance and change in traditional Gilding of the Lacquer confirms the historicity, superiority, necessity and value of Gilding of the Lacquer.

Festival Air (Songkran): Komodifikasi Budaya di Thailand

<p><em>This research aims to want to see the occurred on the discourse of cultural commodification of Songkran in Thailand. Songkran in Thailand is a religious and cultural festival, which is the celebration of New Year in Thailand. Culture of Songkran festival which then becomes bringing many foreign tourists come to some areas in Thailand like Bangkok, Chiang Mai and Phuket. This great Festival and then give effect to social, cultural as well as the economy on local community. The methods used in this study is a qualitative descriptive based on the experiences both of the author. The data analyzed i.e. secondary data that comes from a variety of scientific journals, then the primary data are analyzed based on the author’s experience when on the Songkran festival in Thailand on April, 2019. Based on the analysis that the commodification of culture happens to Songkran in Thailand is not so much to erode the authenticity of rituals. This means that the core rituals such as bathing the Buddha statues in the temples still do. Commodification is a positive impact on the local community, where on area of the festival they provided tubs for sale in range 5 THB to 15 THB. Then, foreign tourists are pouring in from various countries are also effect on the local community economy.</em></p>

벽암 각성의 조형 활동과 불상 조성

벽암 각성의 조형 활동과 불상 조성

The Study of Thai Folk Culture Learning Resources: Case Study on the Myth of the Lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn, Amphur Onkarak, Nakornnayok

The concept on the study of Thai Folk Culture Learning Resources: Case Study on the Myth of the lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn, Amphur Onkarak, Nakornnayok, is to study the history of Thai folk culture from the local myth of the lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn, Amphur Onkarak, Nakornnayok, and to study the use of the power of faith in the source of folk culture learning to promote the morality of youth in the local area of the lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn, Amphur Onkarak, Nakornnayok. The sample group consisted of those involved in maintaining and preserving the lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn, to maintain the beliefs and faith of the monks and the Buddhists in the local area of Wat Suntrarapichittaram (Wat Bueng-Phra-Ajarm/temple), and consisted of a group those involved in archaeological development in Nakornnayok province. The data is collected by document analysis and in-depth interview, analyzed results with content analysis techniques. From the study it is found that 1) From the history of the lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn, it could be about a flourished, prosperous ancient city, as old as the early Ayutthaya period but collapsed and disappeared with the flooding and there has been no evidence recorded, only a myth of a master of Buddhism (Phra Ajarn) who transformed himself into a crocodile living in this lake. It is also believed that this lake has a related story to the well known Buddha statue “ Luang-po Sothorn” 2) The results of using the power of faith towards the lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn of the local folks, is shown in the living style of the people in the community. It is shown in the intention of working, keeping the words and having gratitude towards the teacher which are the basic fundamental reason of the society, promoting the morality of youths in the local area of the lake Bueng Phra-Ajarn, enabling the local people of different faiths to be living happily together in harmony.

Commoditization of the sacred: production and transaction of Buddhist statues in fifth- to tenth-century China

ABSTRACTThis article investigates the relationship between two seemingly opposite aspects of Buddhist statues: being both a sacred object and a commodity. By looking at their production and transaction processes, it examines how these medieval Buddhist statues were ‘singularized’ and ‘commoditized,’ as well as the activities of different social groups in relation to them. This article intends to shed some new light on the roles played by ‘sacred objects’ in medieval Chinese society, through studying how people actually perceived and interacted with them in diverse ways. It is suggested that the ambiguity of the nature of these statues – being both singular and common, sacred and commercial – entailed a host of new religious and economic practices which contributed to the wide spread of the religion in medieval China.

A Segmentation Algorithm for Reconstruction of Decorations on Arm Part of Mongolian Buddha Statue Based on Medial Axis

Extracting the reconstructed decoration parts of a Buddha statue contributes to the analysis in archaeology and culture. A segmented decoration part with good precision is required for reconstructing the solid model of a decoration. This paper presents a novel segmentation algorithm of a point cloud for decoration points with a simple calculation based on divided rectangular surfaces. In our method, the decoration feature of the standard form according to a template is used to detect an exact decoration region. A differentiation graph indicating a variation of tangent vectors is introduced to extract the feature of a decoration region in a two-dimensional domain. A decoration region is detected according to higher correlation values with the decoration feature of the standard form. The proposed method is tested on the arm parts of a Mongolian Buddha statue and the effectiveness of our algorithm is confirmed and evaluated. The decoration points are segmented precisely, and the decoration and background parts are separated. Moreover, holes in the separated background are filled using a B-spline surface fitting technique for generating a complete surface model of the decoration parts and background.

The Korean Pokchang Tradition and the Placing of Objects in Buddhist Statues

The Korean Pokchang Tradition and the Placing of Objects in Buddhist Statues