Bucket Feeding Research Articles

Impact of enhanced compared to restricted milk feeding on the behaviour and health of organic dairy calves

Experimental studies have shown positive welfare effects of enhanced milk feeding of calves. However, there is limited evidence from studies carried out under commercial management conditions including organic farming with a prolonged whole milk feeding period. In a multi-farm study, we investigated effects of an increased level of milk feeding (10–12 l/d, ≙ 14–16% of the calves’ body weight, ‘MilkPlus’ (MP)) compared to the still wide-spread restricted milk feeding (6–8 l/d, ≙ 10–12% of body weight, ‘Control’ (C)) between weeks 3–13 of life. In total 111 female calves were alternatingly allocated to the treatments MP or C on each of the 10 dairy farms (nine certified organic, one near-organic) in Austria (Fleckvieh; 4 farms) or Germany (Holstein Friesian; 6 farms) that originally applied restricted milk provision by bucket-feeding. Data were recorded during the milk feeding period in weeks of life 3/4, 7/8, 11/12 ( ± 2 days) as well as after weaning in week 15/16. It comprised welfare measures relating to behaviour, observed from video-recordings (manipulating other calves, manipulating objects, vocalisation, duration of contact with solid feed; observation time: 320 min per day distributed over 16 h), to health (clinical scoring), and to performance (weight gain). MP calves tended to have higher body weights at the end of the milk feeding period (weeks of life 11/12: MP 111.0 kg, C 104.4 kg) and shortly after weaning (weeks of life 15/16: MP 138.7 kg, C 131.1 kg; pgroup*time point =0.095) and had higher daily weight gains during the milk feeding period (week 3/4–7/8: MP 939 g/d, C 818 g/d; week 7/8–11/12: MP 1082 g/d, C 956 g/d; p = 0.025). C calves manipulated other calves more frequently only in week 3/4 (MP 2.6, C 4.5 times per 320 min, p < 0.001). Clinical health and manipulation of objects showed no association to milk amounts, but the latter decreased when feeding duration of solid feed increased (p < 0.001). C calves spent more time with solid feed during the milk feeding period (week 7/8: MP 9.8% of observed time, C 12.0%, week 11/12: MP 14.4%, C 17.7%; p = 0.008). MP calves vocalised more after weaning (MP 1.6, C 0.5 times per 320 min, p < 0.001), though time spent with solid feed and weight gain (MP 983 g/d, C 995 g/d) were then similar between treatments. We conclude that twice-daily (teat-)bucket feeding of enhanced milk amounts under commercial organic or near-organic conditions had limited positive welfare effects.

Effects of twice a day teat bucket feeding compared to twice a day mother suckling on behaviour, health traits and blood immune parameters in dairy calves and immune parameters in cow's milk

Early separation of cow and calf is still common practice in dairy production systems, but interest in calf rearing with cow contact has been constantly increasing in recent years. We tested the hypothesis that calves suckling their mothers twice a day would benefit with regard to behaviour and health traits until four months of age, when compared to twice daily teat bucket fed calves, fed with comparable milk amounts. Moreover, the effect of calf contact beyond the colostrum period on immunoglobulin G (IgG) and lactoferrin content in cow’s milk was investigated in weeks 3, 8, 12 and 16 post partum. We conducted on-farm trials on two organic farms from 2018 to 2020, where we randomly assigned the new born calves by sex and parity status of the mother (primi- or multiparous) to either teat bucket feeding (BF, n = 30 cow-calf couples, 2 ×3–5 L/d warmed bulk milk) or mother suckling (MS, n = 28 cow-calf couples, 2 ×30 min contact after milking). MS calves performed less cross-sucking, but manipulations of objects did not differ between feeding treatments nor did avoidance distance towards humans. Clinical scores on vitality, body condition, indicators for diarrhoea and respiratory disorders, and number of medical treatments differed between farms, but not between feeding treatments. Lactate level (stress indicator) revealed contradictory results between farms (farm 1: BF>MS, farm 2: BF≤MS). Glucose content (indicator of energy level) and packed cell volume (low values indicating anaemia) were higher in MS compared to BF calves. No difference between feeding treatments was found with regard to the immune status indicators mean total protein and IgG content in calf serum. Consistently, average IgG content in cow’s milk did not differ between cows with or without calf contact and showed a clear decrease with time. The variability of lactoferrin content in milk was higher in cows with calf contact, but its average did not differ between feeding treatments nor did it change with time. We conclude that even part-time mother contact twice daily is a means to reduce abnormal behaviour, i.e. cross-sucking, as it satisfies sucking needs of calves better than teat bucket feeding. Although health traits did mostly not differ between feeding treatments, differences between farms underline the influence of management factors on calf health. Cow-calf contact twice daily had no effect on the build-up of the active immune defence until the age of four months.

Analysis and experiment of feeding material process of Hermetia illucens L. frass bucket wheel based on DEM

• The parameters of bucket wheel operating for Hermetia illucens sand are analyzed. • EDEM is used during the study of bucket wheel shoveling process. • Computer simulation is used in the analysis of the bucket wheel shoveling and unloading Hermetia illucens sand. • The optimal operation parameters affecting the bucket wheel working performance are obtained through the DOE. This study aims to improve the load factor and reduce the residual rate of the Hermetia illucens L. feeding bucket. Based on the sand bucket feeding conveyor designed in the early stage, the technological characteristics of biotransformation of pig manure with Hermetia illucens L., and the mechanism of the bucket shape feeding and transport, the 4-day-old Hermetia illucens L. larvae was firstly inoculated in the pig manure environment with a water content of 75% at 26℃. Then, the single factor experiment was conducted to compare the effect of pig-manure bulking thickness on the biotransformation efficiency of Hermetia illucens L. The results demonstrated that when the thickness of pig manure was 0.10–0.15 m, the biotransformation efficiency of Hermetia illucens L. was relatively high, and the weight loss rate of pig manure was more than 50%. Hence, the thickness of pig manure was an essential factor influencing the efficiency of bucket feeding transportation. On this basis, the physical parameters such as shape size, particle size distribution, and water content of the Hermetia illucens L. sand particles after biotransformation of pig manure were determined. Furthermore, the discrete element method was adopted to establish the numerical simulation model of the bucket shape feeding conveyer under the combination of discrete element simulation and bench test, so as to simulate the bucket shape feeding transport process with insect sands after cleaning the Hermetia illucens L. larva as the test object. Meanwhile, a mechanics and kinematics analysis was conducted for the stress of the horizontal and vertical directions, the mass of materials in the bucket, and the leakage area of the bucket to reveal the mechanism of feeding filling conveying and leakage bucket. Additionally, the main factors influencing the bucket material feeding transport efficiency were comprehensively determined, including feed speed, bucket rotating speed, and feeding depth. The test indicators such as bucket load factor, variation coefficient, and residual rate were established. Besides, a three-factor three-level orthogonal combination experiment was conducted by combining with the Box-Behnken test method. Then, the regression mathematical model between the indexes and factors was set up to analyze the influence law of various factors on the evaluation indicators. The parameters were optimized with the regression model. The model validation test results suggested that the bucket rotating speed was 6.5r·min-1 when the feed speed was 45 mm·s −1 ; the experimental values of the load factor, variation coefficient, and residual rate were consistent with the theoretical optimization values when the feeding depth was 15 cm, with the relative errors of 2.14%, 5.84%, and 6.40%, respectively. Thus, the model optimization is reliable. Under the condition of the optimization parameters, the bench test equipment was established, and the experiment was performed. With the mixture of Hermetia illucens L. insect sand as the experimental material, its load factor, variation coefficient, sand retention rate, and larvae loss rate were 81.23%, 1.48%, 1.85%, and 3.75%, respectively, which met the experimental and actual production requirements. The research results provided a theoretical reference for the design and optimization of the bucket shape feeding conveying machinery of Hermetia illucens L. insect sand.

Large-size fattening calves’ lots fed with automatic milk feeders may have an increased risk for Mycoplasma bovis infection spread and for antibiotic use

Bovine respiratory disease is the leading user of antibiotics (AB) in calf production. Mycoplasma (M.) bovis could lead to greater use of AB as it is a persistent and AB resistant causative agent for respiratory diseases. Two cross-sectional studies were set up to assess the effects of lot size and feeding system on M. bovis infection and the effects of M. bovis seroconversion, lot size and feeding system on AB use in calves’ feedlots. Twenty-six lots in 22 fattening farms were monitored for 41–81 days, from all-in entry of calves until three consecutive weeks without using any collective antibiotics. M. bovis spread was estimated by measuring seroconversion at entry and at the end of study period in 10–15 calves randomly sampled in each lot. All AB treatments used in the meanwhile were recorded. The lots were selected according to feeding system, i.e. individual bucket (n = 7) vs. automated milk feeder (AMF, n = 19), and lot size (30–519 calves), less than 50 calves (n = 9) vs. more than 50 calves (n = 17). Statistical analysis was performed using multivariable generalised linear models with fattening farms as random effect. M. bovis spread increased with lot size (odds ratio (OR) 2.9[1.4; 5.8] per two-fold increase in lot size). This proportion of seroconverted calves was lower in bucket-fed lots compared to lots fed with the AMF using a shared nipple (OR = 0.03[0.003; 0.41]). The main risk factor for AB use was the lot size, with an increase of 1.5[0.94; 1.98] treatments per two-fold increase in lot size. For same size lots, the use of bucket can decrease AB consumption by up to 1.03[−2.18; 0.14] treatments per calf compared to AMF. Analysis of the association between seroconversion to M. bovis and AB use was inconclusive. We found that bucket feeding in small-size lots, i.e. up to a maximum of 50 calves in the same space, limits seroconversion to M. bovis and enables lower use of AB in veal calf production.

Evaluation of Dairy Cattle Productivity in Smallholder Farms in Nyeri County, Kenya

Dairy cattle production contributes approximately 4.5% of the Kenyan National Gross Domestic Product, creates jobs along the value chain and plays a key role in food security. However, average milk yield per cow is still low under smallholder dairy production system despite concerted efforts to improve productivity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the productivity of smallholder dairy farms in 2 sub-counties of Nyeri County. A semi structured questionnaire was administered to collect data on feed resources and feeding systems, breeds and breeding systems, calf management, age at first service (AFS), age at first calving (AFC), calving interval (CI), milk yield (MY) and lactation length (LL) in smallholder dairy farms. Data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The dominant feed resources and feeding system were roughages (mostly Napier grass), concentrates and mineral supplements (87.2%) and stall feeding (74.2%). Majority of the farmers kept Friesians (82.2%) with (94.5%) using artificial insemination. Most of the farmers (83.5%) fed 2-4 litres of colostrum to the calves and the method of feeding was majorly bucket feeding (93.0%). High proportion of farmers (97.7%) fed the colostrum from 0-6 hours after calving and (59.6%) weaned calves at 3 months. The AFS was mainly 18-20 months and above, while the mean AFC, CI, and LL were 28.7±2.84, 15.2±5.11 and 10.0±4.90 months, respectively. The mean milk yield was 10.7±5.85 litres/cow/day. The main challenges to dairy cattle production were feed shortages (30.6%), low farmgate milk prices (28.3%) and high cost of concentrate feeds (17.8%). It was concluded that performance of dairy cattle in the study area was poor attributed mostly to feed shortages and low milk prices. To improve productivity, feed availability and cost together with farmgate price of milk should be addressed.

PSIII-3 The effects of feeding milk from a nipple or a bucket on performance, blood metabolism, rumen fermentation and behavior of dairy calves during preweaning period

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of two milk feeding methods on performance, blood metabolism, rumen fermentation and behavior of preweaning dairy calves. Forty newborn Holstein female calves were assigned to one of two treatments equally: nipple feeding (NF) and bucket feeding (BF). Gradual weaning commenced on d 35 and weaning occurred on d 56. Starter intake, fecal scoring, body weight and structural measurements (withers height, heart girth, abdominal girth, body length) were collected. Blood samples and Rumen fluid samples were collected on day 28 and 56, respectively. Ten calves from each treatment were selected randomly and instantaneous scan-sampling with 3 min intervals was used to collect the behavior data (licking nipple or bucket, manipulating objects, self-grooming, lying, standing). Observation were conducted twice per week (1 h session duration) and were centered around morning (0900 h), afternoon (1500 h), and evening (1700 h) milk feeding period. Data were analyzed by mixed effect model with treatment, time, and the interaction between them as fixed effects, and animal within treatment as a random effect. Results showed that body weight, average daily gain, starter intake and structural measurements were similar between two treatments. NF group had higher diarrhea frequency than BF group during week 6 (P = 0.03). NF group had higher concentration of insulin (P = 0.01), IGF-1 (P = 0.03) and β-hydroxybutyric acid (P = 0.04) than BF group on d 56. Rumen pH and volatile fatty acids were similar between two treatments. No differences between two treatments for behavior observation were found, except that NF group spent more time licking nipple than BF group (P = 0.001). In conclusion, nipple or bucket feeding had no effects on performance, starter intake and rumen fermentation, yet nipple feeding increased licking time and different feeding methods influenced blood metabolism.

Colostrum quality, IgG absorption and daily weight gain of calves in small-scale dairy production systems in Southern Vietnam.

Dairy production is expanding rapidly in Vietnam, but still, the smallholder farms are most common. The aim of this study was therefore to get improved knowledge about colostrum quality in dairy cows, immunoglobulin G (IgG) absorption, daily weight gain in dairy calves and calf management in small-scale dairy production systems in Southern Vietnam. A field survey was conducted on 40 farms, with two calves on each farm being intensively studied. It was observed that newborn calves were separated from their dams immediately after birth and offered 2-4L first colostrum within 4h by bucket feeding. The first colostrum IgG level, fat and protein content were on average 35.6, 4.8 and 21.4%, respectively, and 91% of the cows produced colostrum of good quality (Brix value >22%). The IgG level in serum of calves, measured as Brix value, was on average 9.3%. Colostrum in the samples studied was of quite high quality and on-farm observations showed that colostrum was offered on the first day of calf life, so passive transfer of immunity to the calves was high. In total, 10% of the calves had a Brix value for IgG in serum lower than 8.3%, indicating that those calves had suffered from failure of passive immune transfer (FPT). The daily weight gain of female and male calves was 0.75 and 0.54kg, respectively. Serum IgG was positively correlated with colostrum protein (P=0.002). Daily weight gain and diarrhoea was negatively correlated (P=0.001).

Seasonal growth relationships in Aberdeen Angus × Jersey crossbred cattle.

Summary Twenty-one calves sired by purebred Aberdeen Angus bulls and out of commercial Jersey cows were brought to Ruakura Animal Research Station during the late winter of 1953. Bucket feeding commenced when calves were two days of age and each was fed according to Ruakura recommendations. Seven bull calves and 4 heifers were weaned at 8 weeks of age and the remaining 6 males and 4 heifers were weaned at 18 weeks. Males were castrated at ages ranging from 14 to 17 weeks. Growth rate was measured by live-weight gain and anatomical measurements until the animal reached 30 months of age. Data were analysed by Doolittle's method of least squares analysis, Brody's method for determining instantaneous growth constants, and analysis of variance. The following results were obtained: 1. 1. Steers gained 133 pounds more than heifers during the 30-month experimental period. This difference was highly significant (P = <.01). 2. 2. Age at weaning did not affect weight gain during either the first year or the entire e...

The labour input associated with calf care on Irish dairy farms

The objective of this study was to quantify the overall labour requirement for calf care and how it is influenced by enterprise scale and facilities, together with an evaluation of specific calf-feeding systems with respect to labour requirement and calf performance. One hundred and twenty nine spring-calving dairy herds participated in the investigation of overall labour input. Herds were categorized into three groups depending on herd size (small = < 50 cows, medium = 50 to 80 cows, large = > 80 cows). The total average time consumed by calf care per farm increased ( P < 0.01) with herd size and the average time consumed per calf was highest in the small herd group (2.1 min/day). The proportion of farms bucket feeding was lower ( P < 0.05) and the proportion feeding calves ad libitum and using cold milk was higher ( P < 0.05) with the large group compared to the small herd group. Fifty-seven of the 129 herds participated in the measurement of labour input associated with specific calf-feeding systems. The labour input time per calf required for the task of milk feeding tended ( P = 0.08) to be longer when calves were fed twice daily, using buckets or teats compared to automatic feeders, once daily feeding with teats and twice daily feeding with a trough. The labour input per calf for the cleaning of milk feeding equipment and for bedding and cleaning calf pens was greater ( P < 0.05) with automatic feeding systems compared to the other feeding systems. A further sub-set of ten herds (from the 57 herds) underwent calf performance measurements. The mean calf weight at day 77 for automatic feeding, once daily feeding, twice daily feeding with teats and twice daily feeding with troughs was 95, 95, 93, 91 kg, respectively. In conclusion, labour input associated with calf care was influenced by herd size (and indirectly calf number), and calf-feeding system. Milk feeding of calves on a once daily basis tended to reduce the total labour input per calf and did not adversely affect calf performance. Thus, it is possible to improve efficiency of calf care by selecting time efficient methods of calf-feeding without affecting calf performance.

Practical implications of increasing ‘natural living’ through suckling systems in organic dairy calf rearing

The introduction of suckling systems in organic dairy calf rearing has the potential to enhance animal welfare in terms of ‘natural living’ and to live up to consumers' expectations about organic agriculture. This study describes the implications of suckling systems in a practical organic dairy context. Results show that farmers can successfully develop and implement a suckling system in calf rearing. The consumption of mothers' milk resulted in high weaning weights at 3 months of age. No immediate animal health problems linked to suckling systems occurred. Compared with traditional bucket feeding of milk, suckling systems resulted in increased natural behaviour such as calf-cow bonding, natural sucking behaviour and care-taking behaviour. Some farmers had difficulties accepting negative implications of suckling systems such as stress after weaning and loss of marketable milk. Although suckling of the own mother was seen as the most natural suckling system, farmers adapted their suckling system to calves suckling nurse cows. In order to implement successfully a suckling system, farmers have to step back from control and give calf and cow a chance. In the case of increasing ‘natural living’ through implementation of a suckling system, farmers should be encouraged to take enough time to accomplish this attitude change.

The Effects of Milk Feeding Method and Group Size on Feeding Behavior and Cross-Sucking in Group-Housed Dairy Calves

This study investigated the effect of teat feeding and group size on cross-sucking and competition for milk in dairy calves. Ninety-six Holstein-Friesian male and female calves were allocated to either pairs or groups of 6 and fed milk either from a bucket or via a teat. Calves fed via a teat spent more time ingesting the milk. They spent time sucking the empty teat after milk intake and they spent less time cross-sucking compared with calves fed from buckets. The results show that teat feeding reduces cross-sucking in groups of 6 calves. Calves in groups of 6 ingested the milk faster than calves housed in pairs, which suggests that the competition for milk was greater than in pairs. Teat-fed calves changed to another teat more often than bucket-fed calves changed to another bucket during milk intake. Thus, the use of teat feeding did not reduce the competition for milk as compared with bucket feeding and future studies should focus on improving teat-feeding methods so that they reduce competition for milk in group-housed calves.

Desempenho comparativo de seis grupos de cruzamento Holandês/Guzerá: 12. Ganho de peso de bezerras e novilhas

Foram analisados 3.475 pesos de fêmeas de seis grupos genéticos oriundos do acasalamento entre Holandês Vermelho e Branco (HVB) x Guzerá (Guz), com frações esperadas de genes de HVB 1/4, ½ (F1), 5/8 (acasalamento inter se), 3/4, 7/8 e &gt;31/32. Os dados foram analisados separadamente para 374 bezerras (até 120 dias de idade) e 524 novilhas (dos 121 aos 550 dias de idade), por meio do Proc Mixed do pacote SAS, com modelo que incluiu os efeitos fixos de grupo genético (G), trimestre de pesagem, e a idade como co-variável dentro de G, e o efeito aleatório do animal. Aos ganhos de peso foi ajustado modelo aditivo dominante incluindo a diferença aditiva entre as raças (gI) (HVB-Guz) e a heterose (hI). Para as bezerras, o gI estimado foi significativo (P = 0,059), mas a heterose não (P = 0,92). O ganho de peso nesta fase foi de 474 g/d para as ¼, de 510 g/d para as ½ e de 575 a 610 g/d para os outros quatro grupos, com tendência linear na fração de genes de HVB (gI = 0,171 ± 0,065 g/d), atribuída ao fato observado de as bezerras com maior fração de Bos indicus não se adaptarem bem ao aleitamento em balde. Este menor crescimento foi compensado como novilhas, categoria na qual as F1 apresentaram o maior ganho de peso (371 g/d), que diminuía para 309 g/d nas ¼ e 256 g/d nas &gt;31/32 HVB. O modelo aditivo-dominante predizia adequadamente as taxas de ganho para as novilhas F1 e de retrocruzamentos, mas não para as do cruzamento 5/8 inter se, sugerindo a presença de epistasia. Excluindo-se este último grupo, foram estimados valores de gI = -0,006 ± 0,023 e hI = 0,113 ± 0,020 g/d.

The influence of calf rearing methods and milking methods on performance traits of crossbred dairy cattle in Thailand – 1. Milk yield and udder health

Abstract. Forty crossbred (75–87.5% HF) dairy cows were included in a 2 x 2 factorial experiment composed of hand milking (HM) or machine milking (MM), and artificial rearing (bucket feeding, BR) or restricted suckling (RS). Calf suckling and milk feeding was done until 84 days postpartum. Milking was continued until the end of lactation. MM cows had a significantly (p &lt; 0.05) higher daily saleable milk production (SMP) (7.49 vs. 6.97 kg/day), daily total milk production (TMP) (8.60 vs. 7.96 kg/day) and total lactation milk yield (TLMY) (2297.72 vs. 2137.41 kg) than HM cows. The RS cows had a significantly (P &lt; 0.001) higher TLMY (2455.46 vs. 1979.68 kg), annual total milk yield (ATMY) (2277.23 vs. 1970.73 kg), lactation saleable milk yield (LSMY) (2165.90 vs. 1724.64 kg), annual saleable milk yield (ASMY) (2035.21 vs. 1721.17 kg) and daily saleable milk production (SMP) (7.98 vs. 6.47 kg/day) than the BR cows. The MM cows showed a significantly (p &lt; 0.001) higher somatic cell score (SCS) than their HM herdmates throughout the study period. The BR cows exhibited a significantly (p &lt; 0.001) higher SCS than RS cows

Prevalence and determinants of mastitis and milk-borne zoonoses in smallholder dairy farming sector in Kibaha and Morogoro districts in Eastern Tanzania.

SummaryA study was carried out to establish the prevalence and determinants of mastitis and milk‐borne zoonoses in smallholder dairy farms in Kibaha and Morogoro districts (Tanzania). A total of 57 herds comprising 114 milking cows in Kibaha and 48 herds consisting of 96 milking animals in Morogoro were included in the study. A questionnaire survey was used to assess the socio‐economic determinants of mastitis, whereas California mastitis test (CMT) and microbiological assessment of milk was carried out to establish the status of mastitis and responsible aetiological agents. Seroconversion for brucellosis was evaluated using enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Animals were also tuberculin‐tested using a single comparative intradermal method and milk samples were cultured for isolation of Mycobacterium species. Based on CMT, the cow‐based prevalence of subclinical mastitis was 82.4% in Kibaha and 62.4% in Morogoro. Of the 919‐quarter milk samples cultured, 8.2% were positive for aerobic bacteria with predominant isolates being Staphylococcus epidermidis (2.8%), Staph. aureus (1.7%), Streptococcus agalactiae (1.2%) and Staph. intermedius (1.1%). There was a strong association between CMT positivity and bacteriological isolation [relative risk (RR) = 2.60; P = 0.02]. Fungal growth was observed in 21.8% (n = 881) of the samples and the isolates were yeast (19.2%), Mucor (2.5%) and Aspergillus (0.1%). Bucket feeding of calves was associated with increased risk of a quarter being CMT positive (RR = 1.24; P = 0.000), while residual calf suckling was associated with decreased risk of positivity (RR = 0.86; P = 0.015). Earth floor was associated with increased risk of CMT positivity at quarter level (RR = 1.13; P = 0.041) and Jersey breed was identified as a risk factor to mastitis. The prevalence of bovine tuberculosis was 0.4% (n = 259) and 1.7% (n = 181) in Kibaha and Morogoro, respectively. Similarly, the prevalence of brucellosis was 1% (n = 208) in Kibaha and 1.9% (n = 104) in Morogoro. Findings from this study have demonstrated a high prevalence of subclinical mastitis and existence of health risks to milk consumers despite the low prevalence of tuberculosis and brucellosis in the study herds.

Nutritional support: Enteral and parenteral

Abstract An ill foal presents the veterinary clinician with many diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, not the least of which is providing adequate nutrition to support health and growth. Decisions must be about when to provide nutritional intervention, how much to feed, what type of nutrition to give, and how to administer it. Intervention should occur in any foal that has a low body score or is unable or unwilling to eat on its own. Normal foals consume 25% to 30% of the body weight in mare milk per day. The sick foal may not be able to tolerate this amount; starting with 10% of its body weight over a 24-hour period may be more feasible. Mare's milk is the best source of nutrition for most foals, but if the mare is agalactic or not amenable to milking, then one may need to use replacer milk. Replacer solutions should be mixed in a 10% to 15% dilution to mimic mare's milk concentration. This nutrition can be administered by several different methods in regards to the individual foal's needs. If it is able to suckle, then bucket feeding is the least labor-intensive method. An indwelling nasogastric tube can be placed in patients to feed foals that are unable or unwilling to nurse. Nutrition can be given as either periodic boluses or as a continuous rate infusion. Occasionally, a foal is unable to utilize enough energy from enteral feeding. In these cases, parenteral nutrition is the best way to meet the patient's energy requirements.

Performance and feeding behaviour of calves on ad libitum milk from artificial teats

Weight gain, milk intake, starter intake and number of days with diarrhoea were measured for individually housed Holstein calves offered milk twice daily by bucket at 5% of body weight per feeding ( n=11) or ad libitum from a teat ( n=12) from birth until 4 weeks of age. Mean weight gains during the first 2 weeks were 0.36 and 0.85 kg/day and during the next 2 weeks were 0.58 and 0.79 kg/day respectively. These differences were probably the result of higher milk consumption by teat-fed versus bucket-fed calves, which occurred in all 4 weeks. Starter consumption was negligible until 3 weeks of age for both groups, but the bucket-fed calves consumed more than teat-fed calves (0.25 versus 0.11 kg/day) during week 4. Milk drinking behaviour was studied in detail for eight teat-fed calves over 24 h. Total feeding time was 47 min. All individuals took their largest meals after new milk was provided in the morning (4.7 kg at 6.4 g/s) and after milk was added in the afternoon (3.2 kg at 5.0 g/s); 74% of total daily intake was consumed in these two meals. Calves that drank more also drank faster ( r=0.78 for morning meals, 0.90 for afternoon meals). Intake rate varied little over the course of large meals, although it tended to decelerate towards the end of the meal. Calves consumed the first meal of the day in 13 min, during which they were attached to the teat for 80% of the time. These meals comprised, on average, 25 individual sucking events of 25 s duration, interspersed by gaps of 7 s. Calves occasionally butted the teat, normally during the middle of the meal, and the frequency of butting correlated positively with intake rate ( r=0.80). Feeding calves ad libitum from teats allows them to determine their own intake patterns while improving performance compared to conventional bucket feeding.

Effect of suckling on the release of oxytocin, prolactin, cortisol, gastrin, cholecystokinin, somatostatin and insulin in dairy cows and their calves.

The aim of the present study was to examine how different types of early interaction between dairy cows and their calves influence milking/suckling-related hormone release in the cows and sucking/bucket-drinking related hormone release in calves. Eighteen cows of the Swedish Red and White breed were studied during the first week after parturition. The cows were machine milked twice daily, and allotted to one of three treatments: [1] cow and calf were kept together and the cow was allowed to suckle the calf for 30 min about 1 h before each milking; [2] cow and calf were kept together and the calf was bucket fed twice daily; and [3] cow and calf were separated immediately after parturition, and the calf was kept in a single box and was bucket fed twice daily. Blood samples were collected around day 7 from both cows and calves. The plasma levels of oxytocin, prolactin, cortisol, gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), somatostatin and insulin were analysed. In the cows the levels of oxytocin, prolactin and cortisol were influenced by all three treatments, except for the level of cortisol which did not respond to suckling. The main finding was that the release of oxytocin was as significantly greater during suckling compared with machine milking. In the calves, the hormone levels were also influenced by the different milk feeding routines. The plasma concentrations of oxytocin, gastrin, CCK and insulin increased in response to milk ingestion in all treatments. However, during sucking, the increase of oxytocin was significantly greater than during bucket drinking. In addition, a strong correlation between oxytocin and insulin was found in response to sucking. Further, significant increases in prolactin and somatostatin, and a decrease in cortisol were found during sucking. The level of somatostatin also increased in response to bucket feeding when calves were kept separately. During bucket feeding, no significant correlation was found with oxytocin, but strong correlations between the gastrointestinal hormones gastrin, CCK, somatostatin and insulin were seen. Together these data suggest that different hormonal patterns were triggered in the cows by suckling and milking and in the calves by sucking and bucket drinking. This is further supported by different correlation patterns observed in the calves in response to sucking and bucket feeding. The present findings imply that management routines for cows and calves during the first week after parturition have consequences for the physiology of the animals.

Influence of partial suckling of crossbred dairy cows on milk offtake and calf growth in the Ethiopian highlands

The effects of implementing a restricted suckling regime with crossbred dairy cows have been examined in the Ethiopian highlands. Calves were allowed to suckle their dams for two minutes before each milking until weaning and this system was compared with the common practice of rearing by bucket feeding. Restricted suckling significantly increased calf growth rate to weaning, from 0.31 to 0.53 kg/d (P less than 0.01). No differences in calf growth post-weaning occurred, so that the 20 kg difference in liveweight that had been achieved by the restricted suckled calves by the time of weaning persisted until the calves were nine months old, when observations ceased. Total milk offtake was not significantly affected by treatment, although that obtained from the partially-suckled animals over their whole lactation exceeded that from the other treatment by 15%. Partial suckling delayed return to oestrus post partum but this was offset to some degree by fewer services per conception, hence calving interval was not significantly increased. Voluntary feed consumption was similarly unaffected and it is concluded that restricted suckling offers tangible advantages for adoption by smallholders using crossbred cows in dairy production systems.

Some effects of different rearing systems on health, cleanliness and injury in calves.

Abstract A study was made of the effect of different calf-rearing systems on the incidence of disease, dirtiness and injury in: A. suckler cows with calves at pasture; B. home-reared calves, early weaned and (i) bucket-fed in individual pens or (ii) teat-fed in groups; C. bought-in calves, bucket-fed and early weaned; D. bought-in calves reared for veal and (i) bucket-fed in individual crates or (ii) teatfed in groups. Veal calves in crates tended to be very caked with faeces around the legs and hindquarters which they were unable to groom from about eight weeks of age. Veal calves in straw yards were generally far dirtier overall than any other group. In general calves were free from external injuries. However, 20% of veal calves in crates had abrased, bruised or swollen knees; 3% of knee injuries in this group were diagnosed as serious. Mortality rates in all groups were extremely low compared to previous surveys. Records of treatments for infectious disease revealed that 50% of conditions were diagnosed as respiratory diseases and 30% as septicaemia or enteric disease. Three times as many farmers rearing bought-in calves had to treat animals for disease than those rearing calves on their farm of birth. The proportion of calves requiring treatment on affected farms was the same for home-reared and bought-in animals suggesting that the reason less homereared calves fall sick is that they escape infection entirely. Treatments for enteric disease were almost all given to unweaned animals, thus the only groups requiring treatment after six weeks of age were veal calves. For early-weaned calves arrangements involving individual pens and bucket feeding, or teat feeding calves in groups were equally successful. The proportion of group-housed veal calves treated for enteric disease in the first two weeks on the unit was higher than for any other group. The proportion of farms requiring to treat bought-in calves for respiratory disease was five to six times greater than for home-reared calves. The peak incidence of respiratory disease occurred when calves were six to eight weeks of age; i.e. several weeks after arrival of bought-in calves at the rearing unit. This supports the contention that respiratory disease in calves needs not only the presence of specific pathogens but some predisposing environmental stress.

Bucket feeding and teat feeding of acidified or non acidified milk feed for rearing dairy goats

Bucket feeding and teat feeding of acidified or non acidified milk feed for rearing dairy goats