Brood Area Research Articles

Temperature-dependent modelling of adult performance of small hive beetle Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)

The small hive beetle (SHB) Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) is an invasive pest of honey bees reported in Korea in 2016. This study was carried out to understand adult performance of SHBs under different temperatures and to construct an oviposition model as a part of the population model. Newly emerged adults were subjected to constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 37 °C), their longevity and oviposition were measured and an oviposition model was built afterwards. The longevity of SHBs female decreases from 160.1 to 57.9 days with increasing temperature from 20 to 37 °C. SHB males lived significantly shorter than the females. No oviposition was recorded at 15 °C. The fecundity showed a parabolic trend with a maximum of 1381.6 eggs/female at 30 °C and reduced to 515.8 eggs/female at 37 °C. The model combining all parameters of the SHB females simulated oviposition between 20 and 37 °C and predicted that SHBs could perform better at moderately higher temperatures which are in line with the brood area temperature (34–35 °C) of the honey bee, Apis mellifera.

Some biological aspects of honey bee colonies in relation to the age of beeswax combs

A study was carried out to investigate the influence of differently aged wax combs (foundation as zero, 1, 2, 3 and 4 − 6 years old) on some biological aspects that affect the productivity of honey bee colonies. Twenty-five package colonies were equally divided and situated on each of the tested combs during the spring of two successive years (2018 and 2019). The obtained results revealed that worker brood areas, worker population, worker life span, weights of newly emerged workers and drones, and honey yield significantly increased with fresh combs. However, drone brood areas increased with old combs, and wax combs age had no effect on worker survivorship. It could be concluded that the wax combs aged from zero (foundation) to three years old (light color combs) are more preferable in the performance and productivity of honey bee colonies than the older (dark color combs) ones.

Nest architecture of stingless bee, Tetragonula gressitti Sakagami from Nagaland, India

Tetragonula gressitti Sakagami is the new species of stingless bee discovered in Nagaland (2020). It was earlier found in Arunachal Pradesh (2013), South West China (2019) and Vietnam in 1978. The nest architecture of this particular species was never studied although there had been regular reports of its presence in forest areas by the local populace and all earlier reports were simply documented on the basis of collected samples from forests. This is the first detailed report on nesting characteristics of the stingless bee, T. gressitti, which were found located in the forest and village areas of Phek district in Nagaland during the early winters of 2019. The natural nests were found in tropical to sub-tropical evergreen forests on tree cavities, commonly at a height of 2.91 m ± 0.21 with a single entrance for each colony. The colonies were naturally active as seen and recorded from the activity of bees at their entrance gates during day time. The nests were extracted carefully with appropriate tools and transported to the experimental site. A total of seven natural nests were located for the study. Out of them, three nests were opened to observe the internal nest structure while the remaining nests were kept intact for further development and pollination studies. The observations revealed that the nest entrance on the external region was free from any wax or cerumen funnel/ tube and was meticulously kept clean by the bees. The nest entrances of all the colonies varied in size and shape. Internally, the entrance was connected to the brood through a waxy passage of 11.42 cm ± 0.73 length till it reached the involucrum. The brood was covered in a partial involucrum of 2.15 cm ± 0.23 thickness. The honey pots and pollen pots were found separated from the brood area and were connected through numerous small openings in the involucrum. The adult bees were observed to be deep black in colour. The required data on size of different cells and castes were also recorded accordingly.

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) preference towards micronutrients and their impact on bee colonies.

Honey bees are important pollinators and take micronutrients from different natural floral resources and turbid water to adequately meet their nutritional requirements. But the role of micronutrients for honey bee health is not well understood. Here, the present study was conducted to determine honey bees' micronutrients preference in summer and winter seasons. Also, the impact of micronutrients on foraging behaviour and brood increase was studied in different honey bee colonies. The results elucidated that honey bees exhibited a strong preference for a salt solution compared to deionized water during the summer and winter seasons. However, there was a notable switch in salt preference between seasons. Overall, honey bees showed significantly more foraging activity, more pollen collection, and increased brood area after sodium consumption compared to other minerals in the summer season. Further, pollen collection and brood area were significantly higher after the use of potassium in the winter season. Thus, the food preference of honey bees is strongly linked with the seasons and the availability of the floral resources. Our data suggested that honey bees may seek specific nutrients during variation of the seasonal conditions.

Plant-based supplement containing B-complex vitamins can improve bee health and increase colony performance

It is common knowledge that nutritive stress resulting from decreased diversity and quality of food, pollution of food sources and beekeeping errors may lead to increased susceptibility of bees to pathogens and pesticides. The dearth of adequate food is frequently compensated with supplements. Thus, this research was aimed to study the effects of the plant-based supplement B + on colony strength (assessed according to open and sealed brood area, honey and pollen/bee bread reserves, and the number of adult bees). In addition, Nosema ceranae spores and viruses were quantified and the level of infestation with Varroa destructor assessed. The experiment was conducted in late summer and early spring. In colonies which were given B + in feed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in the parameters of colony strength were noticed in comparison to the control (colonies fed on sugar syrup). Moreover, it was proven that the bees from these colonies had significantly lower (p < 0.05) N. ceranae spore counts, and acute bee paralysis, deformed wing and sacbrood virus loads. Our results suggest that the addition of B + supplement to the colonies provide them with nutrients, contribute to their strengthening, might prevent nutritive stress and increase the success of bees in combating pathogens.

Nest Architecture and Nesting Site Preference of Tetragonula iridipennis Smith in North-Western Plains of India

Abstract Stingless bees constitute an important group of bee diversity providing a vital ecological service i.e. pollination. From India, nine species of stingless bees have been reported out of which Tetragonula iridipennis Smith is widely distributed. Studies revealed that the majority (86.67%) of these bees’ nests were present in brick walls and the remaining (13.33%) were in cavities of hollow tree trunks. Most of the colonies nested at a height of 3.50 m from the ground. Most of the nests (56.67%) had entrances oriented to the east. No distinct entrance tube was observed in 26.92 per cent of the colonies. Overall average entrance tube dimensions (longer side diameter × shorter side diameter × tube length) were 11.62 × 11.73 × 14.04 mm. In all the nests, brood area was surrounded by pollen pots and a few honey pots. The mean dimensions (depth × width) of brood cells, honey pots and pollen pots were 2.79 × 2.62 mm, 5.33 × 4.52 mm and 6.93 × 5.19 mm, respectively. All of the sixty colonies whether in brick/stone walls or in hollow tree trunks overwintered successfully. Our results can be useful for developing conservation measures for T. iridipennis and its augmentation for crop pollination.

Exploring Two Honey Bee Traits for Improving Resistance Against Varroa destructor: Development and Genetic Evaluation.

Simple SummarySelection of honey bees requires traits which can be easily measured in the field by beekeepers. This is also the case for traits linked to honey bee resistance against the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. We therefore describe two new trait evaluation protocols, ‘Recapping’ and ‘Solidness’, conceived to enable an easy evaluation of two putative colony resistance traits, recapping (i.e., opening and re-sealing) and solidness (i.e., amount of capped brood in a defined area) of worker brood, respectively. The hypothesis of this study is that higher levels of ‘Recapping’ and ‘Solidness’ could provide resistance to V. destructor. Repeatability and heritability of the two traits, as well as their phenotypic correlations with other colony traits were calculated, in order to investigate their potential for resistance selection. Both traits showed low repeatability between different measurements within each year. ‘Recapping’ had a low heritability and a negative correlation to hygienic behavior evaluated by the pin-test method. The heritability of ‘Solidness’ was moderate. The two traits did not show an association with V. destructor infestation levels. Further research is needed to confirm these results, as only a small number of colonies could be evaluated.For the development of novel selection traits in honey bees, applicability under field conditions is crucial. We thus evaluated two novel traits intended to provide resistance against the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor and to allow for their straightforward implementation in honey bee selection. These traits are new field estimates of already-described colony traits: brood recapping rate (‘Recapping’) and solidness (‘Solidness’). ‘Recapping’ refers to a specific worker characteristic wherein they reseal a capped and partly opened cell containing a pupa, whilst ‘Solidness’ assesses the percentage of capped brood in a predefined area. According to the literature and beekeepers’ experiences, a higher recapping rate and higher solidness could be related to resistance to V. destructor. During a four-year field trial in Switzerland, the two resistance traits were assessed in a total of 121 colonies of Apis mellifera mellifera. We estimated the repeatability and the heritability of the two traits and determined their phenotypic correlations with commonly applied selection traits, including other putative resistance traits. Both traits showed low repeatability between different measurements within each year. ‘Recapping’ had a low heritability (h2 = 0.04 to 0.05, depending on the selected model) and a negative phenotypic correlation to non-removal of pin-killed brood (r = −0.23). The heritability of ‘Solidness’ was moderate (h2 = 0.24 to 0.25) and did not significantly correlate with resistance traits. The two traits did not show an association with V. destructor infestation levels. Further research is needed to confirm the results, as only a small number of colonies was evaluated.

A scientific note on a black soldier fly (Stratiomyidae: Hermetia illucens) infestation within a western honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony

Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) were discovered in a weak honey bee colony in Hailey, Idaho. The larvae were localized to the brood area and caused the affected comb to putrefy. Further communication with the beekeeper revealed that the colony recently returned from California and that the larvae likely originated there as well. In California, H. illucens are common and exist sympatrically with honey bees, yet there have been very few reports of damage. We therefore believe H. illucens are unlikely to cause damage to healthy colonies or significantly impact the apiculture industry. This report is the first published observation of H. illucens in Idaho and shows conclusively for the first time that H. illucens associates with honey bee colonies in North America.

Effect of feeding by raisin extract on some biological aspects of honey bee Apis mellifera L.

Results showed that the use of raisin extract has a highly significant effect on the activity of bees, Apis mellifera and their ability to produce honey, brood and the quantities of collected pollen. The treatment of raisin extract 30% with a mixture of sugar, honey, soybean, vitamin B-plex, tetracycline and water has outperformed the other of the treatments with honey production area, brood area produced and pollen area during of all periods of study. The area of honey during the three consecutive periods was 5188, 7800, 4040 inch2 and the area of the brood produced during the same periods was 4235, 10780 and 5487 inch2, while the area of pollen for the same periods also amounted to 1715, 7730, 2370 inch2, respectively. While the treatment of only natural feeding was the lowest treatment of all the terms of honey, brood and pollen with a high significant difference, so this indicates the importance of feeding for bees and the importance of the presence of raisin extract in this feeding especially in the summer and winter to help the bees completing their vital works and thus survival and production of large quantities of brood and other bees production.

Fast weight recovery, metabolic rate adjustment and gene-expression regulation define responses of cold-stressed honey bee brood

In temperate climates, low ambient temperatures in late winter and in spring can result in cold stress conditions in brood areas of weakened honey bee colonies, leading to increased levels of developmental interruptions and death of the brood. Very little is known about the physiological and molecular mechanisms that regulate honey bee brood responses to acute cold-stress. Here, we hypothesized that central regulatory pathways mediated by insulin/insulin-like peptide signalling (IIS) and adipokinetic hormone (AKH) are linked to metabolic changes in cold-stressed honey bee brood. A. mellifera brood reared at suboptimal temperatures showed diminished growth rate and arrested development progress. Notably, cold-stressed brood rapidly recovers the growth in the first 24 h after returning at control rearing temperature, sustained by the induction of compensatory mechanisms. We determined fast changes in the expression of components of IIS and AKH pathways in cold-stressed brood supporting their participation in metabolic events, growth and stress responses. We also showed that metabolic rate keeps high in brood exposed to stress suggesting a role in energy supply for growth and cell repair. Additionally, transcript levels of the uncoupling protein MUP2 were elevated in cold-stressed brood, which could indicate that this protein acts in the heat generation through mitochondrial decoupling mechanisms and/or in the ROS attenuation. Physiological, metabolic and molecular mechanisms that shape the responses to cold-stress in honey bee brood are addressed and discussed.

The Effects of Wintering in Different Climatic Regions of Turkey on Some Physiological Characteristic of Caucasian Honey Bee (Apis mellifera caucasica) Colonies

This study was conducted in two locations have different altitudes in the cities which have different climates as Ankara, Ordu, Erzurum, Mersin. The purpose of this work was to define some physiological properties of the bees such as the survivability of colony, wintering ability, usage of stoked honey and to discuss all these data. This study lasted two years and the second year was the continuation of the first year. At the beginning of the year, colonies which has the same genotype were equalized as number of combs covered with bees, stocked honey and brood areas and so on. According to the data analysis, it was obtained that the quantity of the stocked honey was not statistically significant by the region×altitude×year interaction. However, year×region and region×altitude interactions were statistically significant. Similarly, it was obtained that the wintering ability was not statistically significant by the region×altitude×year interaction. The only year×region interaction was statistically significant. Also, descriptive statistics obtained for the survivability of the colonies (%) during the first and second year was added statistically to this application. As a result, this work showed that migratory beekeepers could reevaluate the regions which have the microclimate properties in Aegean, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea. And new research should be made by adding different species of honeybees for the performance of overwintering in different climates.

Assessment of Newly Registered Varroa destructor Infestation Control Acaricides in The Colonies of Honey Bees Apis mellifera L. Under Egyptian Conditions تقدیر فعالیة بعض المبیدات الاکاروسیة المسجلة حدیثا لمکافحة الفاروا فی طوائف نحل العسل تحت الظروف المصریة

Varroa destructor is one of the most deadly pests threatening honey bees and many acaricides have been used worldwide to combat the disease. Thus, this work aimed to evaluate Varoviga® and Bayvarol® acaricides under the Egyptian conditions compared to formic acid. Sixteen honeybee colonies were used and divided into four groups 4 colonies/each group: first group as control, sec­ond group treated with Bayvarol acaricide, colonies were treated with Varoviga acaricide as third group, and colonies treated with formic acid as fourth group. Results showed that, formic acid had the major significant effect on varroa mites, followed by Bayvarol then Varoviga acaricides with no significant difference between them. Moreover, the largest increase in honey store areas were found in the colonies treated with formic acid followed by Varoviga and Bayvarol acaricides, with all treatments leading to an increase in brood area without significant variations between them. No chemical residues were present in honey and wax samples that obtained from treated colonies. Regarding the financial coast, Varoviga appears to be an ideal alternative to formic acid, especially when it is not possible to use formic acid. The results of this work indicated that the effective varroa mite acaricides was formic acid, Bayvarol, and Varoviga, respectively.

Efecto del tamaño interno de la colmena en la producción de cría, miel y polen en colonias de Apis mellifera en el altiplano central de México

El objetivo del estudio fue analizar el efecto del tamaño interno de la colmena sobre la fortaleza (superficie con cría) y reservas de alimento (superficie con miel y polen) de abejas melíferas en la temporada invernal en una región semiárida del altiplano central mexicano. Se utilizaron cuatro bastidores de colmenas tipo Jumbo (45 x 28 cm) dentro de cámaras de cría con tres tamaños internos (52.2, 42.3 y 23.9 L), que contenían el mismo número de abejas melíferas. De manera simultánea se registraron las temperaturas dentro de las colmenas para determinar si la temperatura de la cámara de cría variaba con el volumen. La colmena de mayor tamaño, que corresponde a la tipo Jumbo y la más utilizada en el altiplano central mexicano, presentó los valores más bajos de fortaleza y reservas de alimento, así como la menor temperatura interna. Estos resultados muestran que la utilización de colmenas tipo Jumbo puede repercutir en una disminución de la productividad de miel y polen para los apicultores del altiplano central de México, por lo que es necesario implementar alguna práctica o mecanismo que permita mantener las colonias de abejas fuertes para la cosecha de primavera.

Anti-Varroa Efficiency of Coumaphos and Its Influence on Oxidative Stress and Survival of Honey Bees

Abstract Apart from the efficiency of coumaphos against Varroa mites, its impact on the oxidative status and survival of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) was assessed. The research was conducted on hives from the same apiary, equalised regarding the number of bees, brood area and food storage. Based on Varroa infestation the hives were allotted to two groups: non-infested (N) and infested (I). Both groups were either treated (T) – NT and IT, or untreated (U) – NU and IU. The treatment of infested bees was controlled with a follow-up treatment with amitraz. The efficiency of coumaphos was 96-97%. This organophosphate had a negligible effect on bee survival, but it significantly affected their oxidative status: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities, and the concentrations of malonyl dialdehyde (MDA). Coumaphos significantly (p˂0.0001) decreased SOD activity in non-infested bees, but increased it in those infested. By contrast, both CAT and GST activities, as well as MDA concentrations significantly increased (from p˂0.05 to p˂0.0001) after treatment in all groups, with the exception of IT, where it declined. Coumaphos in non-infested hives caused oxidative stress per se, not unlike varroa in infested colonies. However, in infested colonies it decreased oxidative stress, owing to its efficacy against Varroa mites and contributed to the recovery of bee colonies. In spite of its certain downsides, coumaphos remains an effective anti-varroa substance, but should be used with precaution, not to add to the effects of environmental factors which may cause red-ox misbalance.

Internal water supply in Africanized beehives during the dry season in the Brazilian semiarid

In light of the unfavorable climatic conditions for keeping Africanized bees in apiaries in the Brazilian semiarid, especially during the dry season, this study aimed to assess how the internal water supply in beehives influences the development of Africanized bee during this period in the semiarid region of Piaui state (PI), Brazil. The experiment was conducted in September and October 2016, in the Experimental Apiary of the Study Group on Bees of the Piaui Semiarid, located in Picos (PI). The hives were standardized in terms of population size and amount of food. To that end, a data sheet was filled out and the brood area measured (cm²) at the beginning and end of the experiment. Graduated 500 mL Boardman entrance feeders filled with potable water were installed to measure daily water consumption during the experiment. There was a significant variation in water use by the bees, with average daily consumption of 74.6 mL ± 25.5. With respect to colony development, there was an increase in the number of frames and brood area. Internal water supply can be recommended as a suitable management technique for bee colonies during the dry season in the semiarid.

A Review on Thermoregulation Techniques in Honey Bees’ (Apis Mellifera) Beehive Microclimate and Its Similarities to the Heating and Cooling Management in Buildings

Apis mellifera – Apis, which is Latin for ‘bee’, and mellifera, which is Latin for ‘honey-bearing’ – refers to Western or European honey bees. Research shows that regardless of the ambient temperature, the in-hive microclimate of a beehive at the central brood area must be kept at the average optimum temperature of 35 °C for the colony to survive. Therefore, to survive both cold winters and hot summers, Apis mellifera will employ several heating and cooling strategies to thermoregulate their hives at the optimum temperature. Just like beehives, our buildings are designed with an envelope that is frequently viewed as the barrier that protects the internal occupied space from the impact of the external environment. We also employ similar methodologies to thermoregulate our buildings to reduce the heating and cooling load for less energy consumption while at the same time providing thermal comfort to the occupants. This paper presents the thermoregulation techniques employed by honey bees and the similarities to our buildings. Many similarities can be seen between the honey bees’ hive and our buildings’ thermal management system. However, we can still learn from the thermoregulation management demonstrated by the honey bees.

Evaluating the impact of jatropha oil extract against the Varroa mite, Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman (Arachnida: Acari: Varroidae), infesting honeybee colonies (Apis mellifera L.)

The Varroa mite, Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman (Arachnida: Acari: Varroidae), is a severe external parasitic mite of honeybees that causes great losses of colonies globally. Four concentrations (1, 2%, 5, and 10%) of Jatropha curcas oil were tested for controlling the Varroa mite. Significant effects of reducing percentage of the mite infestation (P = 0.05) after second treatment for sealed brood and after third treatment for adult workers in all tested concentrations of J. curcas were recorded. The low concentrations 1 and 2% of J. curcas were more effective than the higher ones 5 and 10% on reduction of percentage of Varroa mite infestation. Moreover, the colonies treated with the lowest concentrations of jatropha oil had the highest amount of brood area (75.75 and 77.50 inch2) and the highest number of combs covered with bees compared with the colonies treated with the concentrations 5 and 10%. Treated colonies with the concentrations 1, 10, and 5% had a high amount of stored honey and pollen grains, 126.50, 111, and 96 inch2 and 11.25, 9.75, and 9.75 inch2, respectively. Obtained results encourage researchers to study deeply the ability of using jatropha oil in the widely field of Apicultural.

Young Honeybee (Apis Mellifera Bandasii) Queens Perform Better than Old Ones

A productivity of queen bee depends on several factors. Queen age is one of the most important factors affecting queen’s, as well as colony performance. The study was conducted to determine the effects of queen ages on performances of honeybee ( Apis mellifera ) colonies. The queens were reared from local honeybee, Apis mellifera bandasii ( A. m. bandasii ); nuclei colonies were formed and then transferred to standard Langstroth hives when all the frames of the nuclei boxes were occupied with brood and adult bees. Performances of the colonies headed by the new queens were evaluated over three years. Brood area, number of queen cell cups started and swarm queen cells constructed, number of empty cells/100 cells/per colony (brood solidness) and honey yield per harvest were determined every active season for three consecutive years. Colonies headed by 1-, 2- and 3-year-old queens produced 4721.43 ± 511.85, 5523.08 ± 490.07 and 3433.82 ± 413.83 cm 2 sealed brood, and constructed 0.07 ± 0.07, 2.23 ± 0.52 and 9.90 ± 1.89 queen cell cups and swarm cells/colony with 1.86 ± 0.38, 2.40 ± 1.65 and 8.85 ± 2.52 empty cells/100 cells/per colony, respectively. Honey harvested from 1- and 3-year-old queen colonies averaged 13.34 ± 1.11 and 10.50 ± 2.04 kg/colony/harvest, respectively. The colonies headed by 1-, and 2-year-old queens had more brood areas, better brood solidity, less number of queen cells but no significant differences in honey production compared to colonies headed by 3-year-old queens. Our results indicate that queen age has a significant effect on colony performances, suggesting that requeening every three years is adequate for our local honeybee colonies. Keywords : Apis mellifera , Queen age, Brood rearing, Swarm queen cells, Queen cell cups DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/10-13-05 Publication date: July 31 st 2020

THE EFFECTS OF MEDICAL AND AROMATIC PLANT EXTRACTS ON SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HONEYBEE (APIS MELLIFERA L.) COLONIES

In this study, the effects of extracts obtained from medicinal and aromatic plants added to syrups used to feeding honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies on some physiological characteristics of colonies were investigated. The experiment was carried out on 6 groups of 5 colonies. These groups are syrup (S), syrup + Urtica dioica (SU), Syrup + Melissa officinalis (SM), Syrup + Hypericum perforatum (SH), Syrup + Achillea millefolium (SA) and syrup + Thymus serpyllum (ST). As a result of the research, the sealed brood area data were determined as 3013.24±1939.26, 3107.00±2060.42, 3270.81±2194.80, 3091.20±1962.69, 3273.90±2095.49 and 3613.06±2348.27 cm2 in S, SU, SM, SH, SA, ST groups, respectively. When we compare the honey yields of the experimental groups, according to group S, SU increased by 18.48%, SM 43.10%, SH 16.04%, SA 27.35% and ST 53.86%. Therefore, syrup + medicinal and aromatic plant extract mixture given to honey bee colonies may have a positive effect on colony development and honey yield.

Influence of winter feeding on colony development and the antioxidant system of the honey bee, Apis mellifera

The effects of supplementary feeding (artificial diet cake + sucrose syrup supplemented with vitamin C) for different periods (feeding for 12, 15 and 18 weeks) on colony development, protein content and antioxidant system in newly emerged workers were investigated from October to March for two consecutive beekeeping seasons. Sugar syrup was used as the control. The results revealed that there was a marked increase in colony growth parameters (sealed brood areas and adult bee population sizes) in colonies provided with supplemental diet for different periods compared to control colonies. Moreover, colonies fed longest (feeding for 18 weeks) recorded significantly higher sealed brood areas and adult bee population sizes in comparison to other treatment groups. Also, activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) enzymes together with levels of glutathione (GSH) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) were measured in newly emerged honey bee workers sampled from colonies fed supplemental diet for different periods and control group. There was a clear improvement in the antioxidant system in bee colonies that were provided with supplemental diet for 18 weeks compared to other treatments and control ones. This suggests that honey bee workers supplemented with artificial feeding during the winter season possess mechanisms that reduce their oxidative stress. Together, our results suggest that supplemental winter feeding for 18 weeks (from 1 November to 11 March) has the potential to improve colony development and health during overwintering, a period of elevated colony losses.