Bronze Statue Research Articles

Return to Shami. Preliminary Survey of the Iranian- Italian Joint Expedition in Khuzistan at Kal-E Chendar

On September 2012, the Iranian-Italian Joint Expedition in Khuzistan started a preliminary survey at Kal-e Chendar, in the valley of Shami (Iranian Khuzistan), a site investigated in 1936 by Aurel Stein after the accidental discovery of a well-known bronze statue portraying a Parthian nobleman, and never visited again. It was potentially one of the most important religious places of Hellenistic and Parthian Elymais, and this is confirmed by the present survey, which revealed the presence of monumental terraces built in undressed stones, decayed structures, and tombs over an area extending about 50 ha.

Honolulu, Oceanic Urbanism

Author(s): Evangelista, Jonathan TookHNLA; Labrador, Roderick N. | Abstract: The city of Honolulu is usually figured as Waikīkī, a global tourist playground often imaged/imagined as a tropical paradise with swaying palm trees and white, sandy beaches. Honolulu is also an urban center, surrounded and constituted by water, thus exhibiting an oceanic urbanism. This photo essay by photojournalist Jonathan Evangelista and anthropologist/Ethnic Studies scholar Roderick Labrador explores what this oceanic urbanism can mean by visually representing contemporary legacies of the 1920 Hawaiian Homes Commission Act, which set aside roughly two hundred thousand acres of Hawaiian homestead land that effectively created a reservation-type landscape in the islands, relegating and regulating Native bodies to contained spaces. Although the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act sought to “rehabilitate” Kānaka Maoli by returning them to the land, it primarily reinforced the colonial relationship between the United States and Kānaka Maoli and racialized Native Hawaiians through blood quantum regulations. The photos are organized using the oceanic metaphor of sets, which are composed of groups of waves, which collectively form swells. In this case, these sets of photos would form a (global) south swell. Photos of Waikīkī are sandwiched by photos of two Hawaiian homesteads, Wai‘anae on the west side of O‘ahu and Waimānalo on the east side: SET 1: wai•ʻanaemullet•water SET 2: wai•kīkīspouting•water SET 3: wai•mānalopotable•water The photo/cards play with the idea of “home” and the various iterations and possibilities of home. Does the bronze statue of Duke Kahanamoku reflect the erasure/exposure of the Native in this oceanic urbanism? What does “home” mean for dispossessed Natives in this global city? Where is “home” in these homesteads?

‘St Peter in Volders’ and related base metal figurines resembling the famous statue in the Vatican Basilica

The reappraisal of an old find from Volders near Innsbruck, Austria, prompted new research on a group of base-metal statuettes that are miniature copies of the famous bronze statue of St Peter in the Vatican Basilica in Rome. Their age has been the subject of debate. This paper examined several examples of such statuettes to solve the issue with the help of archaeometric analysis. The analysis of the manufacturing technique and alloy composition provided important clues on the dating of the statuettes and allowed the historical interpretation of the group as a whole.

A late antique statuary collection at Ostia's sanctuary of Magna Mater: a case-study in late Roman religion and tradition

Throughout the Mediterranean the study of the destruction, reuse, moving and preservation of statues has provided a window onto the transformation of Rome during a time of ascendant Christianity. The preservation of statuary collections is increasingly important in this regard. Archival research has revealed the discovery of one such collection at Ostia's Sanctuary of Magna Mater, a treasure trove of sculptures, reliefs and at least one bronze statue. All were well preserved, and several were found in the open spaces of the sanctuary. Together they span 500 years of history, stretching into the late fourth century. Unfortunately, the late antique significance of this group has never been acknowledged. This paper situates that collection within the social world of late antique Ostia, where many statues of both sacred and non-sacred subjects remained on display. The late fourth-century dedication, in particular, set alongside the earlier pieces, demonstrates that the ‘mood and motivations’ of traditional Roman religion, in Clifford Geertz's terms, also remained quite visible. The presence of this accumulated tradition, a hallmark of Rome's ‘civil religion’ for centuries, testifies to the high social status afforded one of Ostia's most historic sites, even during an increasingly Christian age.

The Sculptor of Sleep, and: Easter Vigil, and: "The Mystery’s Festal Garment"

The Sculptor of Sleep, and: Easter Vigil, and: "The Mystery’s Festal Garment" David Mutschlecner (bio) The Sculptor of Sleep All afternoon I worked on the bronze statues with a steel brush, cleaning off the excess wax that had left a white sheen as of milk or soap streaking in the waves and folds of metal robes, pooling in the pockmarks, pallor sinking into the tooled grooves and flecking the smooth uplifted faces At five the shadows had fallen so deeply over the sculptured saints that I could no longer work and so went home to my beer and my book. I read and thought of Eckhart: how severe he was, excoriating the soul of every palpable love. All creatures are pure nothingAll creatures have no beingfor their being consistsin birth past the ambit of desire If it is thus for creation can I at least use poetry to part the darkness of this scabrous abyss? No, you must walk withoutthat light, even withoutyour hands before your face,without eyes, without hands, without face. Poets pretend, but who among us, now or ever, could take the birth-pangs he conceived. Perhaps the cold chill of the metal had turned thoughts feverish: I dreamed I saw, as if under the power of an optometrist’s close beam, the back of my eyeball. [End Page 135] Aching concave membraneThe same abrasions I hadclarified in cleaningWhite scales harshly brushed away The day after the dream I anoint the statues with lemon oil, rubbing the fragrance into fanned-out folds where robe and dress resemble rock faces. Thin chiseled lines and ripples spreading like water blown over rock, oil into corpse-wound contusions [End Page 136] Easter Vigil Who is it looks at methrough the reflex of a candle flamein the polished mahogany All that I have done flickers in the dark of the not done flickers in the great winged dark The hull resonates in the breaking swell of the Gloria The light is sudden blinding The world in its age grows godly-hollowWhat cargo did I dream onin the long candle readings Blown wax spatters on the red brick floor Any vessel will do any hold any night to hide the night any cistern for the moon O any sister light [End Page 137] “The Mystery's Festal Garment” Another year I glossthe red brick for Easter the rag soaked and stiffening with wax I have polished the confessional but I do that everywhere Blessing earth notvoided by the love of heaven Rubbing the black grout with lacquer Pressing light into the stone *** Proof follows praxis as fact follows form “We know all that! —what a foolish [End Page 138] thing to say. Anyone can know the story” but to be present where love is the form to be a worker in the Work [End Page 139] David Mutschlecner David Mutschlecner lives and works in New Mexico. He has published three books with Ahsahta, most recently Enigma and Light (2012). Mutschlecner currently has work in New American Writing. Copyright © 2013 Center for Literary Publishing

Leaving Lenin: Elites, official ideology and monuments in the Kyrgyz Republic

Many Lenin monuments remain in cities around the former Soviet republics and a few national or regional authorities have decreed it against the law to deface or remove them. The Lenin monument in Bishkek, capital city of the Kyrgyz Republic, is an example of both policies. On two main counts, however, the fate of this particular bronze statue of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin has been unusual. Only in the Kyrgyz case was the country's central Lenin monument left untouched for over a decade after the collapse of communism, a decree for its preservation as a national treasure being put in force as late as 2000. And, when, in 2003, the government after all decided to remove the monument, it was then relocated only some 100 yards from its original location. These twin issues of timing and new spatial framing offer a window on the relationship between state ideology and politics in the Kyrgyz Republic. I propose to use an official ideology approach to understand the Kyrgyz ruling elite's ideological relationship to the Lenin monument after the collapse of communism.

A political-semiotic introduction to the Estonian “bronze-night” discourse

On April 26–27, 2007 Estonia witnessed its largest civil unrest since the country’s regaining of independence in 1991. The mass riots related to government’s displacement of a memorial (containing a bronze statue) from the centre of Estonia’s capital to a military cemetery a couple of kilometers away came to be referred to as “bronze-night” in Estonian public discourse. Using a framework based on Laclau and Mouffe’s discourse theory, Jakobson’s model of communication and concepts from semiotics and political analysis it provides an initial chart of the discourse unified around this empty signifier “bronze-night”

Ultrasonic phased array contribution to the knowledge of the flow fusion welding process used to make the Roman large bronze statues

Recent archeometallurgical studies have shown that Greek and Roman large bronze statues were not cast in one piece, in spite of an exceptional mastering of the lost-wax techniques, but resulted from the welding of several parts previously cast. The ancient welding process proved to be very spectacular: liquid bronze (secondary casting) of the same composition as the base metal (primary casting) was directly poured between the two parts to be joined. We have recently shown that the mechanism involved is similar to the one involved in some modern fusion welding techniques such as arc, laser beam or oxy-fuel, which demonstrates the very high level of knowledge achieved by Greek and Roman foundrymen in the control of high-temperature processes. Twenty-one centuries later, high level of non-destructive testing (NDT) expertise is particularly being needed for archeometallurgical examinations of the statues, not only to describe the welding mechanism, but also to identify several variants of the process (particularly concerning the welding preparation). This paper explains how NDT, and particularly ultrasonic phased array, have brought decisive clues to understand the flow fusion welding process applied to the “Captive Gallic”, a statue found in 2007 during excavation in the Rhone River in Arles (Southern France).

Writing with an Ear to the Ground: The Armenian Genocide's "Stubborn Murmur"

Writing with an Ear to the Ground: The Armenian Genocide's "Stubborn Murmur"

Mereological Extensionality, Supplementation, and Material Constitution

I want to defend the claim that constitution is not identity: that, for example, a bronze statue, S, is not identical with the lump of bronze, B, that constitutes S at a given time /. My reasons for claiming that constitution is not identity are the usual ones, namely, that objects which stand in the constitution relation to one another possess different identity and persistence conditions and consequently typically differ in respect of their historical and modal properties.1 But anyone who defends such a claim owes us a perspicuous account of what the constitution relation is, given that it is not identity. Elsewhere, I have proposed the following definition - and here I should emphasize that I am now concerned only with material constitution, as exhibited in the statue/lump case:2[MC] x is materially constituted by y at t =d^sub f^x and y coincide spatially at t and every proper part of y at Ms a proper part of x at t but not every proper part of x at tis a proper part of y at t.An attractive feature of [MC] is that it makes material constitution an asymmetrical relation, as it surely should be: if the lump of bronze, B, constitutes the bronze statue, S, then it should follow mat S does not likewise constitute B. Another attractive feature of [MC] is that it appeals only to familiar spatiotemporal and mereological relations, rendering it suitably perspicuous. Yet another attractive feature of [MC] is that it does not require us to abandon the mereological principle of Weak Extensionality, which may be stated thus:3[WE] If x and y have proper parts at t and x is not identical with y, then x and y do not have exactly the same proper parts at t.Some philosophers who maintain that constitution is not identity do so at the expense of rejecting [WE], holding that when one object materially constitutes another they possess exactly the same proper parts: but this lays such philosophers open to criticism from mainstream mereologists, by whom [WE] is widely accepted. However, [MC] will be acceptable only if, in a case like that of the bronze statue and the lump of bronze, we can convincingly argue that the material constitution relation, as defined by [MC], does indeed hold between the objects in question. And this is the issue that I now intend to address.1. The Paring Down ArgumentElsewhere, I have offered what might appropriately be called the Paring Down Argument in favour of the claim that the bronze statue, S, and the lump of bronze, B, are indeed related as [MC] requires them to be in order for ? to materially constitute S.4 [MC] requires that S and B, at the time t at which ? materially constitutes S, differ with respect to their proper parts - and, more specifically, that S possesses proper parts at t which are not possessed by ? at t, although not vice versa. In defence of this claim, I have cited such parts of 5 as its head, H, which is clearly a proper part of S but not, I maintain, a proper part of B. At this point it is helpful to introduce a terminological distinction between (what I shall call) 'material' parts and 'anatomical' parts. A material part of the lump of bronze ? is just any part of ? that is itself a portion of bronze, such as the portion of bronze, BH, which coincides with and indeed materially constitutes H, the head of the statue S. By contrast, an anatomical part of the statue S is a part such as its head, H, or one of its arms. I shall try to define 'anatomical part' more precisely later. The Paring Down Argument is designed to persuade us that, for example, 5s head, H, while it is a proper part of the statue S, is not a proper part of the lump of bronze, B.Here is how the Paring Down Argument proceeds in the case of this example. Suppose, for reductio, that H is a proper part of B. Then, surely, H should be a part of each member of a series of ever smaller material parts of ? converging upon and including BH, the material part of ? that constitutes S's head, H. …

Moderate Monism, Sortal Concepts, and Relative Identity

Coincidence (e.g., of a statue and the piece of bronze which constitutes it) comes in two varieties - permanent and temporary. Moderate monism (about coincidence) is the position that permanent coincidence, but not temporary coincidence, entails identity. Extreme monism (a version of which is stage theory (Sider 2001, Hawley 2001)) is the position that even temporary coincidence entails identity (those who deny that there are merely temporary coincidents are another sort of extreme monist, I shall not be considering this position in this paper).' Pluralists are opponents of monism tout court.2 The intuitively obvious, commonsensical position (= my own position) is moderate monism. It is therefore important to see if it can be sustained.I first outline the moderate monist position and compare and contrast it with other metaphysical positions with which it is often associated. I then indicate the arguments for moderate monism that seem to me most persuasive, drawing on earlier work of my own (Noonan 1993) and Johnston (1992). Next I turn to three criticisms of moderate monism, by Jim Stone (2005a; 2005c), Eric Olson (2006; 2007) and Penelope Mackie (2008 and unpublished). In responding to these criticisms I maintain (a) that sortal concepts satisfy de dicto modal principles that constrain the histories and spatiotemporal surroundings of the things falling under them and that may be thought of as specifying their criteria of identity, (b) that a distinction is required between restricted sortal quantification and unrestricted quantification over the things falling under a sortal concept (between e.g., 'some statue is . . .' and 'something is a statue and is . . .') and (c) that reflecting on the arguments which enforce this distinction provides the best ground for accepting that 'identity is relative' in one sense familiar from the writings of Peter Geach (1980), namely that identity under a sortal concept at a time (expressible in the form 'is the same S as at i') does not entail absolute, Leibnizian identity. I shall suggest that one way (not the only way) of combining these ideas is to defend a variant of stage theory which is a sort of synthesis of some of the ideas of Hawley (2001) and Sider (2001), but does not depart so far from standard perdurantism and which yields a variant on moderate monism which may be thought of as moderately extreme monism (see Noonan 1976).II begin by outlining the moderate monist position. According to the moderate monist if God creates ex nihilo (at ti) a bronze statue and later (at tlO) annihilates it, destroying both the statue and the bronze of which it is composed (so we have a case of permanent coincidence - Scenario I), the statue and the piece of bronze are identical. If, however, God simply radically reshapes the bronze at tlO (so that we have a case of same-origin temporary coincidence, as Mackie [2008] calls it - Scenario II), the statue ceases to exist and the piece of bronze survives, so despite their coincidence up to tlO the statue and the piece of bronze are two things.Since the statue in Scenario I could not have been radically reshaped without being destroyed, but the piece of bronze in Scenario I could, to conform to Leibniz's Law the moderate monist must accept that modal predication is 'Abelardian' (Noonan 1991), so that the reference of, e.g., 'could have been radically reshaped without being destroyed' is different when attached to 'the statue' and 'the piece of bronze'. One way of fleshing this out is to give a Lewisean counterpart-theoretic account of modal predication, according to which 'could have been radically reshaped without being destroyed' stands for the property has a statue counterpart which is radically reshaped and not destroyed when attached to 'the statue', but stands for the property has apiece of bronze counterpart which is radically reshaped but not destroyed when attached to 'the piece of bronze'. However, acceptance of the Abelardian character of modal predication, which is obligatory for the moderate monist (and the stage theorist) - unless, of course, he endorses a comprehensive Quinean scepticism about any grade of modal involvement beyond modality de dicto - does not require acceptance of Lewisean counterpart theory, or a fortiori, of Lewisean modal realism (see Gupta 1980). …

Status of Sample Combustion and Graphitization Lines at INFN-LABEC, Florence

Since installation of the new accelerator at INFN-LABEC in Florence in 2004, the workload has progressively increased in the radiocarbon dating laboratory, requiring a faster sample preparation throughput and greater versatility to allow for a larger variety of treated materials. The “standard” sample preparation line is based on an elemental analyzer (EA) for the combustion of the pretreated samples, and a vacuum line where the CO2 is collected and then converted to graphite. This line has been recently redesigned while maintaining the EA, since this instrument provides us reliable and fast sample combustion and separation of gases. The volumes were optimized and all the mechanical parts (e.g. the fittings) were changed in order to improve the vacuum level, thus decreasing the possibility of contamination; finally, the number of graphitization reactors was doubled (from 4 to 8). In those rare cases involving samples characterized by a complex nearly graphitic structure (e.g. burnt residues), the EA might not guarantee a complete combustion. For these samples, we successfully tested the new sample preparation line that has been recently installed at LABEC and especially dedicated to aerosol samples. This line is equipped with a custom-made combustion oven able to heat to 1000 °C. The subsequent gas separation is accomplished by chemical and thermal traps. As an example, the dating of organic matter collected from an Etruscan bronze statue will be presented and discussed.

Status of Sample Combustion and Graphitization Lines at INFN-LABEC, Florence

Since installation of the new accelerator at INFN-LABEC in Florence in 2004, the workload has progressively increased in the radiocarbon dating laboratory, requiring a faster sample preparation throughput and greater versatility to allow for a larger variety of treated materials. The “standard” sample preparation line is based on an elemental analyzer (EA) for the combustion of the pretreated samples, and a vacuum line where the CO2 is collected and then converted to graphite. This line has been recently redesigned while maintaining the EA, since this instrument provides us reliable and fast sample combustion and separation of gases. The volumes were optimized and all the mechanical parts (e.g. the fittings) were changed in order to improve the vacuum level, thus decreasing the possibility of contamination; finally, the number of graphitization reactors was doubled (from 4 to 8). In those rare cases involving samples characterized by a complex nearly graphitic structure (e.g. burnt residues), the EA might not guarantee a complete combustion. For these samples, we successfully tested the new sample preparation line that has been recently installed at LABEC and especially dedicated to aerosol samples. This line is equipped with a custom-made combustion oven able to heat to 1000 ×C. The subsequent gas separation is accomplished by chemical and thermal traps. As an example, the dating of organic matter collected from an Etruscan bronze statue will be presented and discussed. DOI: 10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16256

講義原稿「意匠及装飾（形体篇）」（昭和12年）にみる岸田日出刀の建築造形理念

This paper examined Hideto Kishida's Formative ideas in Architecture Design in the early Showa period by analyzing the principles and various aspects, found from his lecture manuscripts, comments to Cyureito (the monumental tower to the faithful died in battle) and works of tombstone and pedestals of bronze statues in the same period. Strong feeling to the elementary geometry can be felt with use of aesthetics principles, such as symmetry, balance and repetition, and by quoting trials of advanced arrange theory (“Dynamic Symmetry” advocated by Jay Hambidge) to the three‐dimensional and expression of modernism architecture, the attitude to apply those to the architecture can be recognized. A technical point of view was insufficient in explanations of modernism. Also Kishida did not reject the continuity from the past, and he intended to exchange with tradition. Against “Kochiku”, emphasis on “Kosei” came to the surface, and most of the ideas for architecture matched with Le Corbusier's statement in “Toward an Architecture” (1923).

Krone, Lorbeer, Zepter. Zum Wandel von Insignen am Beispiel der Bronzestatue des Brandenburgischen Kurfürsten und Preussischen Königs Friedrich III./I. von Andreas Schlüter und Johann Jacobi.

A bronze statue of the fi rst Prussian king exemplifi es thecompetition between insignia and changes in their meaning. Th isdevelopment can be traced for the course of a century, from 1713 to1814. Initially, the sceptre in the king’s hand was universally regardedas the central item; by specifi c decree laurel crowned his head, whereasthe crown only appeared on the plinth. In 1802 the laurel was discarded,bourgeoisie and aristocracy took the sceptre from the king’s hand,sceptre and crown were reduced in size and moved to the side of theplinth. In the end, the meaning of the sceptre that had again been added,unchanged in form, was changed by bourgeoisie and aristocracy. The sceptre no longer ruled them, serving as a symbol of regal authority, butinstead stood for the nation and its rule over others.

Bronze Statues by Jane DeDecker

Bronze Statues by Jane DeDecker

Augustus Saint-Gaudens’sThe Puritan

Dedicated in 1887 in Springfield, Massachusetts, The Puritan is a large bronze statue of a menacing figure clutching a huge Bible. Commissioned as a memorial to Deacon Samuel Chapin (1595–1675), The Puritan was designed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens and erected in an urban park surrounded by factories and tenements. After repeated vandalism, it was moved “uphill” to Springfield’s cultural quadrangle in 1899. Contextualizing The Puritan in geographic and affective terms, this essay argues that the statue’s public disavowal was conditioned by Saint-Gaudens’s general disdain for New England’s seventeenth-century founding fathers and in particular their fraught relationships with American Indians.

PERSAMAAN DAN PERBEDAAN UNSUR LOGAM BENDA-BENDA PERUNGGU SUMATERA BAGIAN UTARA DENGAN BENDA-BENDA PERUNGGU JAWA TENGAH: ANTARA KEMANDIRIAN TEKNIS DAN PEMENUHAN KONSEP

When India culture introduce to Indonesia Archipelago, some changes were happen in its native culture. One of India influence was its religion i.e. Hinduism and Buddhism. Both religion then resemblance in material culture such as sacred building (temple), rites utensils (statue, bell, monk stick finial, etc.), or inscription. One of its material source to made those things is bronze. When Indian culture was introduced, the natives weren’t take it for granted adopt Indian concept for producing bronze things. By XRF analysis, known that bronze artifacts from Northern Sumatra and Java aren’t adopt concept from India traditions i.e. astadhatu and pancaloha. Indian influence on bronze artifacts from Northern Sumatra and Java can see on fullfilness of religion concept, especially on statues. It seen on the choosing of special metals as dominan elements for bronze statue construction. This study reveals some of similarities and diverences in construction elements between Northern Sumatra and Java bronze artifacts.

Honor and Profit. Athenian Trade Policy and the Economy and Society of Greece, 415–307 b.c.e (review)

Reviewed by: Honor and Profit. Athenian Trade Policy and the Economy and Society of Greece, 415–307b.c.e Thomas Figueira Darel Tai Engen. Honor and Profit. Athenian Trade Policy and the Economy and Society of Greece, 415–307 B.C.E. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010. Pp. x, 400. $85.00 (pb.). ISBN 978-0-472-11634-8. This work opens with a well-wrought prospectus, touching on evidence, chronology, and methodology, and highlighting placement of trade policy within debates between primitivists/modernists or formalists/substantivists over the ancient economy. This portrait of earlier analysis, continued into the next chapter, is fundamentally sound, although somewhat defensive toward ideologized primitivism, such as that of Karl Polanyi and his admirers; see my discussion in Anc. World 10 (1984) 15–30. To speak of Polanyi’s “conceptual tools” (24) magnifies sociological impressionism to absurdity (see 136, where Engen interprets more astutely). Engen also recognizes the limitations of M. I. Finley’s “model,” although I doubt the work of this brilliant critic reached quite that level of synthesis. Engen sensibly espouses sociocultural construction of economic systems against their status as products of fixed human nature. An important theme is struck by emphasizing that awards for trade-related services possessed honorific and practical value. According to Engen, this mixture is peculiarly fourth-century, designed to couch traditionally disesteemed commercial activity, now disembedded, in conventional terms. Beyond my criticisms of the factual confusions and ideologization of the primitivists, I have offered an interpretation of aspects of Attic trade policy in “Sitopolai and Sitophulakes in Lysias’ ‘Oration Against the Graindealers’: Governmental Intervention in the Athenian Economy,” Phoenix 40 (1986) 149–71, where my systematic divergences with this work are notable. Chapter 3 offers historical context for Attic decrees for trade-related services. The best discussion here was unsurprisingly devoted to the factors surrounding their emergence in the early fourth century, when they were exclusively devoted to foreign benefactors, and an early Hellenistic shift to include citizen benefactors. This policy is consistently examined with an eye toward earlier personal xenia. The wider context is not so deftly portrayed; e.g., in an excessive attribution of fifth-century success in assuring adequate foreign grain supplies to Athens’ superior ability to wield coercion. Well-conceived research can be undermined by its encapsulation within simplistic interpretative frameworks, sometimes conceived to gratify extra-disciplinary arbiters lacking expertise for evaluation. Here an exaggerated confrontation between mass and elite subverts our understanding of the wider social context, and mitigation of φιλοτιμία becomes an overworked leitmotif. Moreover, an antipathy to βαναυσία, “menial vocations” is too casually invoked, failing to distinguish between personal internalization and arm’s-length endorsement. The heart and strength of this work begins with chapter 4, which surveys the services provided by honorands. These included goods, mainly grain, but twice [End Page 144] timber and once fish, supplied in various modes from conventional sale through gift. Chapter 5 organizes data about the honorands by legal status, with a difficult determination between metics and xenoi, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, where documentation of wealthy traders is stressed. Chapter 6 discusses laudatory language: ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός, χρήσιμος, ἀρετή, εὔνοια/εὔνους, and φιλοτιμία. The same semantic system in other honorific inscriptions is assessed. Interpretative keys are an early inhibition against applying this diction to citizens to preclude threatening democratic values by stimulating elite φιλοτιμία, legitimization of market-structured trade, and projection of Greek values onto foreign benefactors. Next, a thorough analysis is made of “honors” awarded benefactors (grants primarily symbolic rather than economically valuable), encompassing commendation, προξενία, recognition of εὐεργεσία, gold crowns, bronze statues, ξενία in the prytaneion, theater seats, and inscription of the decree. These built on fifth-century practices to reward political/military services, although gold crowns and bronze statues (albeit rare) were fourth-century phenomena. Chapter 8 deals with “privileges,” political rights conveying functional benefits: ἀσυλία, ἀτέλεια, ἔγκτησις, military and eisphoric obligation on parity with citizens. ἀσυλία had both practical and honorific value. Engen emphasizes protection against piracy, but protection against Athenian officials was probably equally relevant. ἀτέλεια could be relief from the metoikion or general immunity and was extended (mid-fourth century) to professional traders. Granting ἔγκτησις (right of property ownership) may have been influenced by Xenophon’s advice in the Poroi. The treatment of citizenship grants is...

LIBS analysis of twelve bronze statues displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Crotone

LIBS analysis of twelve bronze statues displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Crotone