Bronze Dagger Research Articles

북한지역 비파형동검문화의 확산과 그 배경 - 기후·금속문명·교류 관점에서

It is necessary to utilize the results of research studies in neighboring regions for research on the Mandolin-shaped Bronze Daggers culture in North Korea. changes in climate and exchange relations identified in the process of forming and spreading the 'metal civilization', represented by the Mandolin-shaped Bronze Daggers culture, are noted as factors that cause cultural change. In particular, the climate cold in Northeast Asia is drawing attention as a breakthrough in the formation of the Mandolin-shaped Bronze Daggers culture and a change to the Slender Bronze Daggers culture. In the North Korean region, the regional characteristics of the South and the North are confirmed based on the Cheongcheon River, respectively, and the regional characteristics of the East and the West are highlighted based on the central mountainous region. Considering the sort and type of bronze artifacts and the ratio of alloy components, it can be seen that northwestern Korea and northeast Korea had a differentiated network or interaction due to their strong connection to Liaodong and Jilin, respectively. In the North Korean region, internal and external interactions increase, and exchange relations are further strengthened after the spread of the Zhengjiawazi Assemblage (6th~5th B.C.E). Due to the spread of the Zhengjiawazi Assemblage, the metal culture in North Korea changes from the Liaodong style to the Liaoxi (or Liaozhong) style, and accordingly, the exchange and ideological system of he Mandolin-shaped Bronze Daggers culture is also changed. The rapid increase of Liaozhong style’s bronze artifacts such as the bronze daggers and bronze mirrors is closely related to the growth of polity such as 'Gojoseon'.

초기 고구려의 기층문화 연구 ④ - 桓仁 지역 돌무덤

This article analyzes the Dalishugou site, Dadianzi site, Guangfucun site, Fengjiapuzi site, and Wangjianglou site in Huanren County. Through the analysis of tombs, the location and distribution of tombs, their structure, burial method and funerary objects were examined from a tentative perspective. The structures of the tombs are diverse, and include stone cists, stone-lined tombs, pit-type and stone-mound-type dolmens, stone-mound tombs with capstones, and stone-lined tombs with non-stepped stone cairns. The stone-mound tombs with capstones have only been excavated at the Fengjiapuzi site. These tombs appear to be of a transitional aspect as they have a complex structure of a dolmen and a stone-mound tomb. Cremation customs were investigated at the Dadianzi site, Guangfucun site, Fengjiapuzi site, and Wangjianglou site. In particular, traces of the transformation of funerary objects due to cremation in the tomb were investigated. The bones in Wangjianglou tomb No. 1 were grayish-white in color, indicating cremation at high temperatures. Few artifacts were excavated from the tombs. A narrow-bladed bronze dagger and bronze arrowhead were excavated from the Dadianzi tomb, and a bronze bracelet was excavated in the Guangfucun tomb. Although several tombs with relatively diverse structures were excavated at the Fengjiapuzi site, the artifacts were simple, such as a mounted cup and a polished stone dagger imitating a narrow-bladed bronze dagger. In the Wangjianglou tomb, earthenware such as a Long-necked jar with four-ears, a jar-like plate, various ironware, jade bracelets, glass rings and ear plug, earring made of braided gold thread, and various ball-shaped beads were found. Among these, the Long-necked jar with four-ears is compared to a jar excavated from the Longtoushan dolmen in Xinbin and has many similarities with the earthenware of early Goguryeo. The tombs from the Bronze Age to the early Goguryeo period in the Huanren County are helpful in understanding the process of change and development in terms of their structure and funerary objects. The Dalishugou tombs was built around the 10th century BC. With the advance of the Yan Dynasty in the early 4th century BC, ironware from the Eastern Zhou was introduced, bringing about significant cultural changes in Northeast Asia. The stone cist tombs at the Dadianzi site and the dolmen at Guangfucun site date from around the mid-3rd century BC, although there is no significant difference in time. Also, around this time the stone-mound-type dolmens at the Fengjiapuzi site were built, as well as. The stone-mound tombs with capstones (No. 3 and No. 5) at the Fengjiapuzi site constructed at the end of the 3rd century BC. Meanwhile changes occurred as stone mounds played an important role in the tomb structure of this period, which became the stone-lined tombs with non-stepped stone cairns, representing the early Goguryeo tombs. Tombs No. 1 and No. 4 at the Wangjianglou site and tomb No. 4 at the Fengjiapuzi site are inferred to have been built around the 2nd century BC at the latest.

고고자료로 본 변·진한의 기원과 다호리집단의 재검토

This study intended to examine the origin and establishment of Byeonhan and Jinhan based on its organic relationship with the late Bronze Age. The Byeonhan region can be discussed in relation to the Songguk-ri cultural area and the Jinhan region, to the Geomdan-ri cultural area. The Songguk-ri cultural area can be viewed as a vertical society due to the advancement of class differentiation, while the Geomdan-ri cultural area is presumed to be a horizontal society with weak class differentiation. The old Byeonhan site shows the characteristic of large dolmen construction following the introduction of the slender bronze dagger culture in the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, while the old Jinhan site, where class differentiation was relatively weak, clearly shows the transition to wooden coffin graves in relation to immigrants around the 2nd to 1st centuries BC. The Byeonhan region shows traces of cultural homogeneity spreading through sea routes along the southern coast of Gyeongsangnam-do since the late Bronze Age. The Changwon Daho-ri Group, which had the largest number of wooden coffin grave groups in the Byeonhan region, was identified as a ‘port city state’ based on geopolitical location and excavated artifacts.

청동기시대 남한지역 칠기의 출현과 유입 양상

In South Korea, lacquerware has been identified since the Bronze Age, but these has been no proper discussion about the background, route of introduction, and timing of the emergence of lacquer culture. In South Korea, lacquerware was investigated in Deokcheon-ri, Changwon, Namseong-ri, Asan, Daegok-ri, Hwasun, Chopo-ri, Hampyeong, and Hoam-dong, Chungju, starting from Jeoknyang-dong, Yeosu in the late Bronze Age. Early lacquerware was mainly excavated from Dolmen and Stone-piled Tomb with a Wooden Coffin, and was a prestige goods that revealed the owner's status. This shows that lacquerware was a valuable goods and could only be owned by the ruler. It is not clear whether these lacquerware were actually produced directly in South Korea or only raw materials were imported from outside. However, in that lacquerware was painted on relics that reflect the symbols of group that shared Korean bronze culture, such as mandolin shaped bronze dagger and slender bronze dagger, it can be said that their own lacquerware was already produced in the late Bronze Age.
 It is estimated that lacquerware from South Korea was introduced through seaway from eastern coastal ports in china(Sandong Peninsula to Zhejiang Province). The timing of the inflow is thought to be at least before the oil field in Jeoknyang-dong, Yeosu, but there is a possibility that the remains of earlier periods will be investigated in the future. At that time, the lacquer culture did not have a professional production system, and recognized the existence of lacquer around a specific base, showing the aspect of the inflow period in which lacquer was produced on a small scale.

Finding of an Early Scythian weapon set in a burial of the Tagar culture (Askiz steppe)

The article is devoted to the analysis of a weapon set discovered during the excavations of the Tagar kurgan in the Askiz steppe in 2020. This complex consisted of two adjacent fences and a children's burial in a stone box between them. According to the characteristic features of the burial rite, the mound can be dated within the VIII – VII centuries BC. In the grave pit of fence No. 1, a bronze dagger with a knife in a well-preserved leather case with embroidery was found near the man's right hand. Typological features allow us to attribute these items to the Early Scythian stratum. A dagger with a slightly beveled roller-shaped pommel, a flat plate handle, a straight crosshair in the form of two spikes, a four-sided blade with a double-sided sharpening has a genetic connection with the Karasuk samples. The entire gun set has extensive analogies both among random finds in the Askiz steppe and in closed complexes on the territory of the Minusinsk basin. The ornament of four «mushroom-shaped» figures embroidered with tendon threads is unique for the Khakasko-Minusinsk steppes. Such finds expand our understanding of Early Bulgarian art, which appears to be very traditional at the initial stages. The "freedom" in the ornamentation of the leather cover analyzed in the article is determined by the «game» moments reflecting the individual consciousness of the ancient master, being a specific indicator of value cultural and mythological orientations. In this case, it was possible to fix a completely new plot within a rather closed visual system.

Development of the Composition and Grave Goods Deposition Aspect of Korean-Type Bronze Daggers in Southern Korea and its Significance —Focusing on Bronze Daggers, Hilts, and Scabbards—

Development of the Composition and Grave Goods Deposition Aspect of Korean-Type Bronze Daggers in Southern Korea and its Significance —Focusing on Bronze Daggers, Hilts, and Scabbards—

The Formation Process of the Slender Bronze Dagger Culture in Southern Korea

The Formation Process of the Slender Bronze Dagger Culture in Southern Korea

Детское погребение из Шатмантамака: культурные традиции между радиоуглеродной и археологической хронологией

The author analyzes sources from the inlet child burial in Mound 1 of the Shatmantamak I burial ground. It is located in the northern steppe of the Southern Urals (today’s Miyakinsky District of Bashkortostan, Russia), within Bugulminskaya-Belebeevskaya Upland. It is shown that this burial belongs to the earlier stage of the Early Iron Age (late 9 th—8 th centuries BC). It was the time when a bright and recognizable “nomadic complex” was spreading across the Eurasian steppe from east to west. This one and closely related burials used to be previously regarded as part of the transitional period from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age. The early nomadic epoch in the Southern Urals is also marked by finds of Karasuk bronze daggers and knives.

Barrow of the Early Saka Time Ulkensor

In 2020 on the shore of Lake Ulkensor (in the Burabay district of the Akmola region) a single barrow was discovered and then studied, there was a burial of the early Saka time. This paper presents an analysis of the results of a practical study of the obtained materials and their interpretation. The burial was performed in undercut, at the bottom there was a full skeleton of a man in an extended position, on his back, with his head oriented to the west with a deflection to the south. Accompanying goods are represented by a composite belt, a bronze dagger in a case with a chape, a grindstone, a quiver with bronze arrowheads, a whip, a antler clasp and an iron knife. The burial rite and set of items allow the authors to attribute the site to the Ulubai-Tasmola archaeological culture of Northern Kazakhstan and date it to the 7th–6th centuries BC. The most important archaeological find for the region is a composite belt, its details are made of antler (presumably, of deer antler). The shape and type of individual elements of this specific decoration, its decor and design features reflected the position of the owner on the social ladder and also find analogies in the Tasmola culture of Central Kazakhstan and in the circle of early Saka sites from the Urals to the Altai-Sayan.

춘천 중도 청동기시대 주거지군의 획기와 전개

The dwelling cluster of Jungdo-dong is largely divided into six stages and eight periodization. The period from the Stage I(11th century BC) to the Stage Ⅲ(9th century BC) in Jungdo-dong was characterized by a combination of raised band decoration pottery, doublerimmed vessel, and rounded bottom upright rimmed pottery; a small-sized plain pit hearth dwelling and a medium and large-sized stone-lined hearth dwelling are combined in the Stage I(11th century BC), a large-sized stone-lined hearth dwelling and a plain pit hearth dwelling in the Stage Ⅱ(10th century BC), and lastly a small-sized plain pit health dwelling in the Stage Ⅲ (9th century BC). In addition to the small-sized plain pit hearth dwelling and the rim perforation decorated pottery, mandolin-shaped bronze daggers, various stone daggers, stone spearheads, stone arrowheads, etc. are associated in the Stage Ⅳ-1 (6th century BC), but in the Stage Ⅳ-2(5th century BC), the compacted medium-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, and artifacts similar to those of the Stage Ⅳ-1 are associated.
 The compacted large-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, etc. are combined in the Stage Ⅴ-1(4th century BC), the compacted middle-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, the round attached-rim vessel, etc. in the Stage Ⅴ-2 (early to late 3rd century BC), and lastly the small-sized plain pit hearth, the hearth-free dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, the round attached-rim vessel, etc. in the Stage Ⅵ(late 3rd century BC to mid 2nd century BC). The dwelling cluster of Jungdo-dong reached its peak in the Stage Ⅳ-2, which was clearly evident from the fact that the dwelling cluster in the Stage occupied 47% of the total area of Jungdodong.
 The small-sized dwelling cluster in the Stage I had the smallest proportion, which was associated with the dwelling left over from the seasonal and temporary economic activities of the raised band decoration pottery group.

청동기시대 동북아시아의 생업경제(上)

The purpose of this study is to identify the livelihood style of Northeast Asia. Thus, livelihood studies of Liaoning province, Jilin province, and the Korean Peninsula were listed, and based on this list, the livelihood style has been reconstructed. At the center of the study are plant remains and animal remains. According to the analysis, Liaoning province and Jilin province focused mainly on the agricultural and livestock industry, but not much on hunting. When it comes to agriculture, not only rice but also foxtail millet and proso millet were cultivated, which continues to Iron Age. Livestock industry was primarily about raising cattle, pigs, and dogs, and sheep were secured from interacting with nomads. Yet the number of sheep was relatively less than that of the other livestock animals. Meanwhile, it is estimated that wild fruits and grains were gathered to ensure nutrition and provisions. The fishing and shell gathering of Liaoning province were centralized in the Bohai Bay, while in Jilin province, those were centering around the river of the inland. Also, storage pits existed to keep the spare food. Despite the shortage of data from North Korea, Liaoning province and Jilin province are right beside the Korean peninsula, and therefore it is concluded that there cannot be a significant difference of livelihood style between the north and south of the Amnok River. For this reason, it is estimated that there is a high possibility of excavating livelihood resources in North Korea, which are unknown yet to South Korea. Although there are differences within the Korean peninsula, limiting only to the northern parts of the Korean Peninsula, this northern part and Liaoning province gradually came to have similar livelihood style. In conclusion, through these studies, Mandolin-shaped Bronze Dagger culture and livelihood style of Ancient Joseon could be understood, as well as the unrecorded livelihood style of the inhabitants in the Korean Peninsula and Northeastern China in Bronze Age. Furthermore, the society of that era can clearly be interpreted.

남해안지역의 청동기문화와 정치체 형성과정

In the Southern coastal region of the Korean Peninsula, bronze ware was mainly used from the Bronze Age to the early Iron Age-Three Kingdoms Period. The Lute-shaped bronze dagger culture of the Bronze Age have been identified 45 objects in 27 sites. According to the lead isotope analysis results of the bronze ware of the Lute-Shaped Bronze Age on southern coast region, it is estimated that most of them used raw materials from the zone 3(Chungcheong·Jeolla·norhtwest Gyeongsangbuk-do) of southern Korean Peninsula. Also, many bronze ware of slender bronze dagger culture during the early Iron Age used raw materials from the zone 2(southeastern Gangwon-do). From this results, it is thought that bronze ware from the Bronze Age-early Iron Age were made using raw materials from South Korea in the South. During the Proto-Three Kingdoms, not only the bronze ware of the Slender bronze dagger culture but also the Chinese and Japanese archipelago bronze ware were confirmed. In either case, most of the bronze raw materials are from China, so it is considered that bronze raw materials and products were imported together from China. The process of forming political establishments in the southern coast can be examined based on the research of war anthropology and war archaeology. Equal tribal societies and military societies with hierarchies are different in terms of weaponry, due to different types and patterns of warfare. Based on this, Lute-shaped bronze age culture in the Bronze Age shows the appearance of a tribal society, but there is a possibility that a commandership accompanied by coercion was formed in the Yeosu Peninsula. The appearance of Slender bronze dagger culture in early Iron Age, in turn gave rise to a weapon combination consisting of projectile weapons, hilt weapons and pole weapons. This combination appeared throughout the whole region and continued into the Proto-Three Kingdoms. Therefore, it is believed that statelets began to be formed as it entered the military general society from this time.

철기시대 남한지역 통나무관의 발생과 전개

The split log coffin burial in South Korea is largely divided into seven stages. Stage I(250~200 B.C.) featured an attached-round rim vessel and a bronze implement; Stage II(199~100 B.C.) a type Ⅰ rectangular cast-iron axe; Stage III(101~50 B.C.) an attached-triangular rim vessel, a type-II rectangular cast-iron axe, a type-I lozenge cast-iron axe, and a type-I rectangular flat iron axe; Stage IV(49 B.C.~1 A.D.) a nascent soft gray pottery, a type-II and type-III rectangular cast-iron axe, a type-II lozenge cast-iron axe, a type-II rectangular flat iron axe, and a type-II short lozenge flat iron axe; Stage V(1~50 A.D.) a type-III rectangular cast-iron axe, a type-III lozenge cast-iron axe, and a type-II long lozenge flat iron axe; Stage VI(51~100 A.D.) a type-III long lozenge flat iron axe; Stage VII(101~150 A.D.) the latest type of a gray pottery in the early period, etc.
 The split log coffin burial in South Korea arose in the context of South Korea on its own. It is thought that only beliefs and rituals for old big trees and big trees existed from late the first half of the Bronze Age to the first half of the Songgugni type culture, and that there were rituals for big trees(立大木) in the second half of the Songgugni type culture or in the first half of the slender bronze dagger type culture. It is also thought that returning to the Daegok-ri type culture, the creative chiefdom stratification of the Daegok-ri group that dominated the bronze implement technology occurred as old big trees and big trees were converted to split log coffins. Split log coffins generated in the inland area of Jeollanam-do were distributed in the Man-kyung river basin and Gyeonggi region before 100 B.C. Since then, they spread to the eastern part of South Korea which later became the core part of their distribution, and they became extinct according to the change of burial concept before and after 150 A.D.

Burial of the Pazyryk Elite Members at Khankarinsky Dol, Northwestern Altai

This article presents the results of an interdisciplinary study of kurgan 30 at Khankarinsky Dol, located on the left bank of the Inya River, 1–1.5 km southeast of Chineta, Krasnoshchekovsky District, Altai Territory (northwestern Altai). This is a Pazyryk kurgan, under which a looted double burial of a male and an adolescent was found. Their heads were apparently oriented toward the east. Along the northern wall of the grave, an accompanying burial of seven horses was found, placed in two rows, heads oriented to the east. The morphological analysis showed all of them to be stallions, resembling those from other mounds of this group. Morphological comparison with horses from other Pazyryk kurgans in the Altai revealed both similarities and differences. Analysis of the grave goods, including iron bits, a bone pipe-shaped bead, tiny bronze daggers in wooden scabbards, a pickaxe, numerous fragments of gold foil from the horse harness, and fragments of Chinese wooden lacquer ware, suggests that the burial was made no earlier than the 4th century BC – possibly in the late 4th to early 3rd century BC. Radiocarbon analysis was carried out at the Tomsk Institute for Monitoring Climatic and Ecological Systems of the SB RAS Center for Isotopic Studies. The funerary rite and the artifacts suggest that kurgan 30 was constructed for members of the nomadic elite of the northwestern Altai.

전북지역 마한의 역사문화권과 향후 과제

Lately, the inclusion of certain provincial regions in the ‘Mahan Historical and Cultural Sphere’ of the 「Historical and Cultural Zone Reorganization Act」 has been a great concern of local people. Fortunately, the revised bill of the act has passed the National Assembly and is about to go into effect in coming June. In recent years, an intensive study has been conducted on the pit tombs from which potteries with ring rims and Korean style bronze daggers have been excavated mostly around the Mangyeong River Basin in Jeollabuk-do, which has thus emerged as the largest center of tomb remains of the early Iron Age or the founding period of Mahan. Based on a series of achievements like this, the basin-shaped space from Mireuksan in Iksan to Moaksan in Jeonju occasionally comes to be set as the ‘Mangyeong River Basin Cultural Zone’. Besides, the remains of mounded burials (墳丘墓) which are represented by the remains of Sangun-ri, Wanju have been identified throughout the Jeonbuk region. The present paper investigates the importance of the Jeonbuk region in the Mahan period by organizing the remains of tombs related to Mahan in the Jeollabuk-do region and examining the establishment of cultural spheres according to the water system and their characteristics. In Chapter II, the contents of the ‘Mahan Historical and Cultural Sphere’, including the process of initiation and enactment of the 「Historical and Cultural Zone Reorganization Act」, were reviewed and the problems of the bill were examined. In Chapter Ⅲ, the cultural sphere of Mahan in Jeollabuk-do and its characteristics wereclassified into the cultural spheres according to the water system based on the remains of the tombs investigated so far. As a result, the cultural sphere of Mahan in Jeollabuk-do was subdivided largely into the Mangyeong River Basin - Dongjin River Basin - Gochang Stream Basin. In Chapter Ⅳ, As for the characteristics of the related river basins, it was found that there are a large number of tomb remains from a relatively early period coincident with the formation or establishment time of Mahan in the Mangyeong River Basin. In case of the Dongjin River Basin, the amounts of archaeological data are relatively small, but notable was the Unhak-ri tomb cluster in Jeongeup, where a belt of the Chinese Qin Dynasty was discovered. Lastly, in the Gochang Stream Basin, Mahan’s mounded burials since the 3rd century are densely distributed and it was confirmed that, among them, the ancient tombs cluster of Bongdeok-ri, Gochang are at its zenith. In the end, it turned out that all the tombs from the formation period of Mahan to the multiple and high mounded ancient tombs of the Mahan tradition could be confirmed through the tombs remains of the Mahan period in each water system of the Jeonbuk region. Consequently, it could be summed up that the proportion of Jeonbuk region on the historical stage of Mahan is heavily large. It seems therefore necessary to study Mahan culture in Jeonbuk region from a broader perspective with a view to advertise the excellence of Mahan culture in broader scope of Jeollabuk-do. In addition, it is further requested to mobilize active administrative power and to introduce an organic cooperative system with other regions. For this purpose, the nurturing of related experts should be accompanied, as well.

고조선문화권 청동기의 전개와 사회, 시대 구분- 한국고고학의‘고조선시대론’에 대한 제안 -

The short Tang-type Bronze Dagger culture is a term that encompasses the Mandolin-shaped Bronze Dagger culture and the Slender Bronze Dagger culture. It is considered to be a term that well expresses the Korean cultural area of Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It is noteworthy that the composition of the artifacts combining the Liaoxi style bronze dagger and the bronze mirror with the plural knobs is related to the power base of the Gojoseon cultural area’s polity. The bronze artifacts of the Gojoseon cultural area are centered on the Shiertaiyingzi Culture. One of its features is a constant change in the combination relationship as the interaction network shifted from the northern to the central system. The Mandolin-shaped Bronze Dagger culture is a system based on ‘simple weapons(dagger)+ritual artifacts(mirror)+tools(axe)’ and chariot fittings and harnesses were important. The Slender Bronze Dagger culture is a system based on ‘complex weapons(dagger, halberd, spearhead)+ritual artifacts(mirror)+tools(axe)’ and chariot fittings and harnesses either became ritual artifacts or decreased. This is understood as a feature that reflects the fact that the basic ideology of chiefly authority, which combines the symbolism of the warrior and the priest, remained constant even when the power base of the polity changed. The short Tang-type Bronze Dagger culture underwent several breakthroughs, and Gojoseon is considered to have been a large polity around the 4th century BC. Recently, “theories of the Gojoseon period” have been raised from various perspectives. Demarcation from the phase of the Zhengjiawazi Assemblage or the beginning of the Slender Bronze Dagger culture is considered a reasonable approach that takes into consideration both the universality and specificity of Gojoseon history and the convenience of introductory texts.

한반도 남부지방 출토 劍把形 劍鞘 제작기술에 관한 小考

This study intends to pursuit the characteristics and making techniques of dagger scabbards unearthed from the southern region of the Korean Peninsula during the Korean-type bronze dagger culture period. Few sorts of dagger scabbard forms including round stick-shaped have been founded, though, hilt-shaped dagger scabbards take majority. Although, each regions of southern Korean peninsula shared a model called hilt-shape as a motif, it could be pointed out local colors of each region in making process obviously. It might be assumed that various conditions and environments of the each community were different in accepting and developing such techniques in the process of transitioning the scabbard culture to the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. There have been difficulties in restoring making techniques of wood scabbard core and attached metal ornaments owing to its unique hilt shaped(it seems like a bamboo joint). Several making process restoration proposals have been proposed, but there has been no destructive analysis or archaeological experiment attempts support them objectively. In this study, based on the observation of the metal ornaments added to the scabbards, the objective basis was secured by newly pointing out real data that can support the so-called ‘lost wax casting on wooden inner mold’ technique. In addition, it could be pointed out that a making technique similar to the ‘flatting technique’ was applied in the process of combining and finishing metal ornaments.

Terracotta mould and bronze dagger from Grotta dei Baffoni (Genga – AN): analysis, replica and interpretation

Terracotta mould and bronze dagger from Grotta dei Baffoni (Genga – AN): analysis, replica and interpretation

Transition and Exchanges of Bronze Dagger Culture in North Korea~Central Region

북한과 중부지역은 한반도 청동기문화의 성립과 변천을 이해하는 데 중요한 공간이므로, 이 일대의 청동기 조합 변천상에 집중할 필요가 있다. 그러므로 본 논문에서는 이 지역의 청동단검문화를 두고, 무기류 청동기가 등장하기 이전 즉 소형청동기가 출현하는 시기부터의 변화 과정을 살펴보았다. 1단계는 청동단검문화가 성립되기 이전의 소형청동기만 확인되는 시기로서, 크게 서쪽의 관서지역 중부~해서지역까지와 동쪽의 관북지역 북부와 영동·영서지역으로 대분된다. 동쪽의 청동기는 연해주에서 동해안을 따라, 서쪽은 요서-요동과의 교류를 통하여 유입된 것으로 추정된다. 2단계는 초기 비파형동검을 비롯한 비파형동모와 동촉 등 청동제 무기류가 등장한다. 관서지역 남부와 해서지역에서는 초기비파형동검과 비파형동모, 동촉 등 다종 다양한 청동 무기류가 확인되는 것에 반해 중부지역에서는 수량도 적고 기종 또한 동검과 동촉만이 확인된다. 청동기들은 요서-요동지역과의 교류를 통하여 유입되었으며, 슴베와 검신의 재가공 등 재지화 되는 현상이 뚜렷하다. 3단계는 전형비파형동검과 변형비파형동검을 표제로 하며, 공구류인 선형동부의 등장과 확산이 특징적이다. 변형비파형동검은 관서지역 중부와 남부, 해서지역을 중심으로 분포하며, 비파형동모과 선형동부가 중심인 관북지역 남부와는 청동기 조합상의 차이가 명확하다. 2단계와 동일하게 요동-요서지역과 밀접한 교류 속에서 재지적인 청동기가 제작된다. 4단계는 각 지역별로 지역화 된 세형동검의 등장과 함께 한반도에서 전형화 된 세형동검이 등장한다. 영서·영동지역의 청동기는 감소하며 관서-관북-호서·호남지역 간의 교류로 인하여 경기지역에 청동기가 증가하는 양상을 보인다. 앞 단계에 비하여 각종 청동기의 형식과 조합에서 중국 동북지역 과의 차이가 명확해진다. 마지막으로 기원전 108년 한사군의 설치를 기점으로 북한~한반도 중부지역에서 청동단검문화가 철기문화로 변화한다. 청동단검문화의 중심이 영남지역으로 변화함에 따라 경기지역과 관북 남부지역에 영남의 청동기가 일부 확인되는 점이 특징적이다.

A Study on the Meaning of Bronze Ritual Wares in the Korean-type Bronze Dagger Culture

본고의 목적은 민속지나 해외 연구 사례를 통해 세형동검문화 청동의기의 의미와 변화에 대해 고찰하는 것이다. 세형동검문화는 동경의 뚜렷한 형식 변화를 기준으로 3시기로 나눌 수 있으며, 시기마다 유물의 조합상이달라지는 특징이 있다. 무기류와 검파형동기, 방패형동기 등을 비롯한 이형동기는 무력을 상징하며, 집단과 피장자를 보호하는 역할을 하였던 것으로 추정된다. 거울류와 원개형동기는 빛을 반사하여 장착하고 있는 사람의신성성을 더하고 맺히는 상을 왜곡시켜 악령을 쫓아내는 역할을 하였으며, 방울류는 금속의 소리를 사용해 의례의 환경을 조성하고 사용자가 신을 부를 수 있도록 도왔던 것으로 생각된다. 공구류는 기술과 생산을 상징하는 청동의기였으며 물질적 풍요를 기원하고 높은 기술을 과시하였던 것으로 추정된다. 세형동검문화 의례에는각각의 상징성을 가진 청동의기를 시청각적으로 활용해 치러졌으며, 이는 개인과 집단을 보호하는 벽사의 성격을 띠고 있었던 것으로 해석되었다. 그리고 세형동검문화 집단의 결속력을 강화할 필요성과 청동기의 주조 기술 발전을 배경으로, 청동의기를 사용한 의례 행위를 통해 집단의 정체성을 강화하고 한반도의 독자적인 세형동검문화로 발전할 수 있었던 것이다.