Bronze Research Articles

Magic money: commodities and exchange in Bronze Age Europe

ABSTRACT Bronze Age Europe has been described as the first globalized economy: long-distance trade in bronze and other materials is seen as centrally implicated in the social and political transformations of the period. Recent research pointing to the existence of standardized units of weight (given material form in ‘proto-currencies’ such as the well-known bronze ösenringe of the Early Bronze Age, as well as in the appearance of weights and balance beams during the Late Bronze Age) has reignited longstanding discussions around the relative significance of commodity and gift exchange during the period. In this paper, we revisit anthropological discussions of trade and exchange on the one hand, and of ethnomathematics on the other, to consider the social implications of Bronze Age numeracy and metrology. In this way, it is possible to avoid imagining the Bronze Age as a proto-Capitalist economy and instead consider how economics, society and cosmology were inextricably intertwined.

Radiocarbon chronology and settlement patterns in the Bronze Age of the Qaidam Basin, Northwestern China.

Prehistoric settlement patterns on the Tibetan Plateau, particularly in the Qaidam Basin, have drawn significant scholarly interest. Yet, limited data have hindered a comprehensive understanding the Bronze Age chronology and landscape exploitation in this region. This paper presents 24 newly obtained radiocarbon dates from eight archaeological sites within the Qaidam Basin on the Tibetan Plateau. Integrated with existing 14C data and spatial analysis, these findings reveal an overall continuous occupation of the basin from ca. 3600-2500 calBP, with a gradual shift from expansive lowland settlements to smaller, ephemeral high-altitude structures, identified around 3350 calBP. This change is consistent with demonstrated periods of climate degradation which likely drove strategic adaptations in landscape management and subsistence methods. Overall, this research not only establishes a more robust chronology for the Qaidam Basin's Bronze Age, but also advances the discussion on human-environment interactions in high-altitude areas during late prehistory.

Untwisting Beycesultan Höyük: the earliest evidence for nålbinding and indigo-dyed textiles in Anatolia

Cuneiform tablets indicate the importance of textile manufacturing in the Bronze Age Old Assyrian Colony Period and Hittite Empire, yet the organic traces of this industry rarely survive. Two burnt textile fragments found at Beycesultan offer an unexpected insight into the Bronze Age textile industry in Anatolia. Here, the authors present the results of chromatographic and microscopic analyses that indicate one fragment was made from hemp using the nålbinding, or single-needle knitting, technique and was dyed with the woad or indigo plant, while the other was a natural tabby weave. Both add to our understanding of the diversity of textile production in the Bronze Age.

Earthquake Environmental Effects: The Case of Late Classical-Hellenistic Helike, Gulf of Corinth, Greece

Human habitat is much controlled by the landscape and its ongoing processes overtime. Some of these processes occur instantaneously and are often triggered by seismic events with a major destructive impact on the human-built environment. Helike, on the southwest shore of the Gulf of Corinth, is a characteristic case of an ancient habitation site bearing witness to repetitious natural disasters from the Early Bronze Age to the Late Antiquity. The Late Classical-Hellenistic site, revived in the Helike plain after the 373 BC earthquake, has been systematically investigated thanks to the multidisciplinary research and excavations of the Helike Project in the last 35 years. This work has significantly enriched the historical seismicity of the region and shed light on past human-environment relationships. The study of the architectural remains excavated by the Helike Project, coupled with geological and soil micromorphological analysis on archaeological soils and sediments of the settlement, demonstrates a constant effort of the Helike people to reconcile with the elements of nature. Our results underline the destruction of a flourishing textile dyeworks operated at the settlement, due to a strong earthquake which triggered extensive morphological changes in a broader area. These changes include co-seismic liquefaction and lateral spreading, and post-seismic changes in the gradient of river channels. The former changes attest to an uplift in the headwater area and subsidence in the lowland plain of the ravine flowing near the ancient site.

Textiles from the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in the Vistula and Oder River Basin – Poland

Textiles from the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in the Vistula and Oder River Basin – Poland

Phoenix Kingdoms: The Last Splendors of China’s Bronze Age. Edited by Fan J. Zhang and Jay Xu. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2022. 240 pages, 320 images, and 4 maps. $65.00 (cloth), $40.00 (paper).

Phoenix Kingdoms: The Last Splendors of China’s Bronze Age. Edited by Fan J. Zhang and Jay Xu. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2022. 240 pages, 320 images, and 4 maps. $65.00 (cloth), $40.00 (paper).

12,000-year-old spindle whorls and the innovation of wheeled rotational technologies.

'The wheel and axle' revolutionized human technological history by transforming linear to rotary motion and causing parts of devices to move. While its ancient origins are commonly associated with the appearance of carts during the Bronze Age, we focus on much earlier wheel-shaped find-an exceptional assemblage of over a hundred perforated pebbles from the 12,000-year-old Natufian village of Nahal Ein-Gev II, Israel. We analyze the assemblage using 3D methodologies, incorporating novel study applications to both the pebbles and their perforations and explore the functional implications. We conclude that these items could have served as spindle whorls to spin fibres. In a cumulative evolutionary trend, they manifest early phases of the development of rotational technologies by laying the mechanical principle of the wheel and axle. All in all, it reflects on the technological innovations that played an important part in the Neolithization processes of the Southern Levant.

Textiles and Staple Finance in the Near East and the Southern Levant

Textiles have long been recognized as a key feature in the economic and social development of early complex societies. Many comparative dimensions, however, remain unexplored, including within the ancient Near East. Unlike contemporary societies in Syria and Mesopotamia, wool was not used as a staple finance good in the Early Bronze Age southern Levant (c. 3700–2000 bce) since the landscape could not permit adequately scaled production. In larger cultural regions wool was produced at vast scales and helped underpin royal institutions. But without a non-perishable, high-volume and high-value commodity like wool, staple finance in the southern Levant was restricted to seasonally produced grain, wine and oil, primarily used in exchange for local labour. Moreover, without wool there was little need in the southern Levant for the administrative and security technologies used elsewhere, namely seals and sealing, and later, writing. This limited the development of complex institutions and cognitive abilities.

Detecting the waves of southward culture diffusion along the eastern margin of Tibetan Plateau during the Neolithic and Bronze Age: a sarcophagus burial perspective

Detecting the waves of southward culture diffusion along the eastern margin of Tibetan Plateau during the Neolithic and Bronze Age: a sarcophagus burial perspective

Diachronic evolution in subsistence strategies of ancient humans from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age in the Western Liaohe River Basin and its influencing factors

The Western Liaohe River Basin, rich in prehistoric cultures, is one of the significant origins of Chinese civilization. However, what is the subsistence basis that supports the development of prehistoric cultures in this region? More importantly, which role did agriculture play in the development of various prehistoric cultures? Which factors drive the diachronic evolution in subsistence strategies? These issues are worthy of study. Based on this, we systematically collected zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical, and stable isotope data from various prehistoric archeological cultural sites spanning from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age in the Western Liaohe River Basin, attempting to explore their economic characteristics, evolution process as well as driving factor. The study found that in the Western Liaohe River Basin, the cultivation of millet crops may have begun as early as the Xiaohexi cultural period, and domestic pigs and dogs may have occurred in the Xinglongwa cultural period (Xionglongwa and Xionglonggou site respectively). However, during Hongshan cultural period, collection and hunting (cervids) remained the main subsistence strategy. In the Lower Xiajiadian cultural period, millet agriculture and domestic pig breeding replaced gathering and hunting, as the predominant subsistence strategy. This subsistence pattern was also adopted by subsequent Upper Xiajiadian cultural populations, and in some areas, animal husbandry developed during this period. We analyze that the evolution of the subsistence strategies of the prehistoric humans in this region may be related with Holocene climate change. Meanwhile, other factors such as improvements in production technology, population pressure and the environmental impacts they brought may also play a role. This study reveals the evolution process of subsistence strategies of prehistoric cultures in the Western Liaohe River Basin, and is of great significance in understanding the relationship between subsistence evolution of ancient populations and environmental changes in northern China.

From the Ashes of the Bronze Age

This paper surveys the published evidence for thermally altered human remains on Cyprus from mortuary contexts dating to the Iron Age (Cypro-Geometric and Cypro-Archaic periods), while outlining new theoretical perspectives and scientific approaches resulting from the development of analytical methods that have expanded the potential for specialists to study such remains on the island through the lens of funerary taphonomy. Most of our current knowledge of ancient fire-related bodily transformations such as cremation comes from regions where thermally altered human remains are frequently found in archaeological contexts. For some geographical regions, however, the use of fire in mortuary contexts remains underexplored, and this is the case with Cyprus, where thermally altered human remains are rarely recovered. I survey previous research on the subject, although the true extent of fire-related mortuary practices on the island is currently unknown. I address current challenges and suggest potential directions for future research.

How Did Rituals Change with the Changing Ritual Places During the Second Millennium BC in Southwest England?

This study explores the transformation of ritual spaces in southwest England during the second millennium BC, focusing on the transition from monumental structures to residential settlements. Initially, ritual activities predominantly occurred within barrows and ring-cairns. By the Middle Bronze Age, however, these activities shifted towards houses and settlements, reflecting broader changes in architectural practices and social dynamics. This research examines the implications of these shifts through archaeological findings and literature review, highlighting how rituals became integrated into daily domestic spaces and the continuity of ritual practices through the reconfiguration of abandoned settlements into monument-like structures. The findings suggest that the evolution of ritual spaces was closely tied to the socio-spiritual landscape of the community, revealing significant insights into the cultural and social dynamics of prehistoric Europe.

Ancestral origins: northern Levantine Funerary Palaces in the Middle Bronze Age

While typically considered a south Levantine palace form, recent research suggests that the Middle Bronze Age Funerary Palace type has its origins in the northern Levant. The Western Palace at Ebla (Building Q) has long been known to feature similarities in plan, layout and contents with south Levantine forms. Of particular note is the shared funerary association in both southern and northern examples, specifically the discovery of elite, possibly royal interments, and associated retainer burials, in association with these complexes. In addition to Ebla, other palace complexes from the northern Levant, broadly defined, should be considered as examples of the Funerary Palace form, namely Byblos and Tell el-Burak. This paper will outline the evidence in support of this association and explore the ramifications of a broadly northern origin of the Funerary Palace form in wider considerations on the nature of MBA urbanism more generally.

Almost the same, but not quite: an analysis of Late Bronze Age swords in the Balearic Islands

In the present work we carry out a study of all the Late Bronze Age swords recorded in the Balearic Islands. They represent a set of local practices and traditions alongside foreign ideas and archetypes. To carry out the study, we employ a strategy that joins technological and archaeometric analyses with approaches that consider isotopes and typologies. Of note among the data considered is the importance of metal coming from deposits in Linares, followed by Menorca and Mallorca, and finally, more marginally, Sardinia. A technological analysis of the manufacturing processes provides evidence, in a local context, of the use of the lost-wax casting technique, compound objects, and ternary bronzes, all technologies foreign to the Balearic Islands. Finally, we reflect on the local practices in which these objects were embroiled. All of this allows us to provide an in-depth examination of the interaction networks as well as the changes that took place in local metallurgical practices as the result of the circulation of ideas and knowledge.

Material characterization of forged bronzes from ancient China (c. 11th-2nd century BCE) reveals development of the non-mainstream metalworking technique in Chinese bronze production

Although ceramic piece-mould casting was the dominant metalworking technique in the Chinese Bronze Age (c. 2100-221 BCE), the forging technique was also employed by craftsmen to pursue lightweight bronzes with thin walls and high hardness. However, compared to the ceramic piece-mould casting technique, research on forging technology is relatively limited. In this research, 48 sheet metal fragments of Chinese bronzes from different regions and periods (from the Zhou to Han dynasties) across China were analyzed by metallography, SEM-EDS, and hardness testing. The results show that craftsmen had a profound understanding of copper alloy properties and were able to produce thin-walled, functional artifacts by forging cast blanks with appropriate alloy compositions. With the development of forging technology and political changes, the types of forged thin-walled bronzes became more diverse, and their consumers expanded from the elite to civilians. This study not only reveals the material characterization of forged bronzes, but also elucidates the historical trajectories of forging technology and the multifaceted interplay between cultural influence, aesthetic pursuits and technological advancement in the development of forging techniques in ancient China.

History of Siberia. VOL. 1. Stone and bronze age. Editor-in-Chief, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences M.V. Shunkov Novosibirsk: Publishing House of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS, 2022. 660 p. History of Siberia. VOL. 2. Iron age and middle ages. Editor-in-Chief, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.I. Molodin Novosibirsk: Publishing House of the

The article presents an overview of new archaeological research materials from the first two volumes of the fundamental “History of Siberia” (Novosibirsk, 2019–2022). The academic publication was prepared exclusively by scientists from Siberia and the Far East. The main authors are specialists from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, other academic institutions of the Siberian Branch and Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, classical universities and colleges of Siberia. The first volume is devoted to the Stone and Bronze Ages, the second – to the Iron Age and the Middle Ages. The volumes cover the period from ancient times to the 16th century. Many of the results of these studies have become significant not only for Siberian and Asian archeology, but have also acquired global scientific significance.

Faience beads excavated from Laolongtou cemetery, Yanyuan: new evidence of the cultural exchange between the south‐western and north‐western parts of China

AbstractAncient Chinese beads provide important evidence of cultural exchanges. This study used a scanning electron microscope with an energy‐dispersive spectrometer to analyse the microstructure and chemical composition of faience beads excavated from Laolongtou cemetery in Yanyuan county, China. Based on the analysis results, two glazing methods (efflorescence and cementation) and two bead types (high‐Pb and high‐K beads) were identified. A comparison of the chemical compositions of samples unearthed at the Laolongtou cemetery and samples from north‐western China indicated close regional contact. Bronze wares and burial customs in Laolongtou cemetery also revealed that the Yanyuan region might be a significant node in the Southern Silk Road between the south‐western and north‐western parts of China and even in Southeast Asia.

Exploitation of Mining Resources in El Argar Culture: Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Hinterland of the Western Betic Cordillera (Southeastern Iberian Peninsula)

ABSTRACTThis research addresses the territorial organisation of metallurgical production during the El Argar Bronze Age (2200–1550 cal bc) in the inner areas of El Argar territory through lead‐isotope and trace element analyses of geological copper ores, archaeometallurgical remains and copper‐based artefacts. Results from 31 mineral and 35 archaeological samples suggest that the exploitation of copper resources in the studied region was significant and had a similar impact than other mining districts of El Argar territory. This, therefore, leads the hierarchical and centralised production model to be questioned. It also appears that the copper ore deposits in the coastal regions that were intensively exploited during the Copper Age were used less intensively in the El Argar period. At that time, copper was mostly procured from ore deposits in the inland areas of El Argar territory: that is, ore deposits within the Alpine orogeny hinterland (inland areas of the Betic Cordillera, from Granada to Baza). Other artefacts were sourced from outside the Alpine geological domain, but still on the fringe of El Argar territory (the foothills of the Sierra Morena‐Linares mining district) or even from ore deposits definitely outside El Argar territory itself (the Los Pedroches Variscan region and elsewhere).

Conservation of Waterlogged Wooden Structures from the Late Bronze Age at İnönü Cave (Türkiye)

ABSTRACT During the excavations carried out in the İnönü Cave, located within the Western Black Sea region of Türkiye, four separate floor structures made of wood, dating back to the Late Bronze Age (1436-1123 Cal BCE), were unearthed. The way the corners of the structures are connected shows that the structures were built with the çantı or bell technique, a traditional nail-less wooden architectural form of the Black Sea region. Thanks to the wet and stable environmental conditions within the cave, the wooden floors have survived and are well preserved from the Late Bronze Age to the present day. This study presents the details of the conservation practices developed and deployed in order to ensure that the wooden floors are well protected and remain available for study in the short and medium term.

New Evidence for Prehistoric Textile Production and Social Complexity on the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau, Southwestern China

ABSTRACT This paper presents new discoveries of textile tools and fabric remains from the Yanyuan Basin, offering insights into textile production and social complexity on the southeastern Tibetan Plateau from the late 4th to the late 1st millennium b.c. The findings from the Yanyuan Basin, along with those from other parts of the region, indicate that spindle whorls have been used by individuals with diverse cultural traditions and of different social status since the Neolithic period. In the Bronze Age, clay whorls generally came from small and medium burials, likely associated with spinning workers. However, bronze textile tools were commonly found in large burials from the late Bronze Age, during which significant social stratification took place, and they were likely symbols of the wealth and high social status of the occupants. This study proposes that textile production changed from a household activity to a socially organized activity over time.