Broad Objectives Research Articles

The Literature of Reconstruction: Not in Plain Black and White. Brook Thomas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017. Pp. ix+378.

The Literature of Reconstruction: Not in Plain Black and White. Brook Thomas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017. Pp. ix+378.

Procedural Aspects of Compulsory Licensing Under TRIPS: Report No. II of Webinar Series on Reinterpreting TRIPS in the Life Sciences

In 2013, Indian authorities granted a compulsory license to NATCO Pharmaceuticals for a patented pharmaceutical product sold by Bayer. This decision raised several complex issues regarding the grant a CL and their consistency with the principles and objectives of TRIPS. Furthermore, in January 2017 an amendment to the TRIPS agreement entered into force, allowing compulsory licensors to export their generic pharmaceuticals to least developed countries (LDC), further recalibrating the intersection between the patent institution and public interest. On this background, the webinar presentations and discussion addressed the framework and context for CL provided by the TRIPS convention. Both the specific requirements enshrined in TRIPS art 31 and the broader objectives and principles enshrined in TRIPS, e.g. transfer and dissemination of technology (art 7), protection of public health (art 8) and technology neutrality (art 27) where included in the discussion.

Toward functional pollinator abundance and diversity: Comparing policy response for neonicotinoid use to demonstrate a need for cautious and well-planned policy

Functional pollinator abundance and diversity reflects global ecosystem health. Declines imply consequences for ecosystems, food production and human health. While broader objectives away from monoculture conventional agriculture is not addressed smaller scale approaches for land management require analysis to improve pollinator conservation outcomes. Policy response to neonicotinoid use can provide valuable lessons for developing well-informed, cautious and planned policy that encourages pollinator abundance and diversity. Response is inconsistent around the world with harm considered scientifically inconclusive by companies, governments and policy makers, and varied responses reflecting this position. Bans demonstrate how strong precautionary policy can assist pollination conservation despite a multitude of contrasting stakeholder opinions. Approach to implementation of such bans influences longevity and influence on conservation.This article presents findings from analysis of policy response by country to neonicotinoid use and suggests that variation in response be attributed to three non-exclusive areas; translation of research findings – influencing how inconclusive research findings could increase motivation for strong precaution, vested interest and approach to implementation. Scholarly articles and research findings clarifying information available to inform policy decisions are summarised through literature review, organised by key theme of article and additionally-mentioned themes. Meta-analysis of the scholarly articles provides statistical representation of mention rates indicative of how pollinator research is considering multiple stressors, associated or concurrent as contributing to declines. The policy process for neonicotinoid use is suggested as a space for learning where other conservation approaches, including introducing new species becomes relevant for policy.

The Semiotics of Strategy: A Preliminary Structuralist Assessment of the Battle-Map in <em>Patton</em> (1970) and <em>Midway</em> (1976)

This essay offers a preliminary examination of the battle-map as depicted in two films about the Second World War: Franklin J. Shaffner's biopic Patton (1970) and Jack Smight's epic Midway (1976). In these films, maps, charts, or tableaux (the three-dimensional models upon which are plotted the movements of battalions, fleets, and so on) emerge as an expression of both martial and cinematic strategy. It is argued that the battle-map emerges as a crucial isomorphic element. It features as a prop to signify command and to relay otherwise complex strategic plottings, giving audiences a glimpse into how military strategy is formed and tested: a traditional 'reading' of the map. Conversely, the map is a device of foreshadowing and a sign of command's profound limitations. It is thus resolved that the battle-map is as much a sign of the subjective as the objective.

Drivers and implications of change in global ocean health over the past five years.

Growing international and national focus on quantitatively measuring and improving ocean health has increased the need for comprehensive, scientific, and repeated indicators to track progress towards achieving policy and societal goals. The Ocean Health Index (OHI) is one of the few indicators available for this purpose. Here we present results from five years of annual global assessment for 220 countries and territories, evaluating potential drivers and consequences of changes and presenting lessons learned about the challenges of using composite indicators to measure sustainability goals. Globally scores have shown little change, as would be expected. However, individual countries have seen notable increases or declines due in particular to improvements in the harvest and management of wild-caught fisheries, the creation of marine protected areas (MPAs), and decreases in natural product harvest. Rapid loss of sea ice and the consequent reduction of coastal protection from that sea ice was also responsible for declines in overall ocean health in many Arctic and sub-Arctic countries. The OHI performed reasonably well at predicting near-term future scores for many of the ten goals measured, but data gaps and limitations hindered these predictions for many other goals. Ultimately, all indicators face the substantial challenge of informing policy for progress toward broad goals and objectives with insufficient monitoring and assessment data. If countries and the global community hope to achieve and maintain healthy oceans, we will need to dedicate significant resources to measuring what we are trying to manage.

An Enquiry into the Production Pattern of Select Maharatnas (SAIL, CIL, ONGC and NTPC): Post-2000

Public sector enterprises have been set up to serve the broad macro-economic objectives of higher economic growth, self-sufficiency in production of goods and services, long term equilibrium in balance of payments and low and stable prices. Many of the CPSEs are also in the allocative business of natural resources. As on 31.3.2014 there were 290 Central Public Sector Enterprises consisting of 234 operating CPSEs and 56 CPSEs under construction. The turnover of all 234 operating CPSEs during 2013-14 stood at 20,61,866 crores as compared to 19,45,814 crores of 230 operating CPSEs in the previous year. Indian PSUs have developed a formidable franchise, with leadership positions in sectors like Oil and Gas, Financials, Utilities, Mining and Heavy Engineering controlling 60% - 90% market share. Over the years, they have played a significant role in the growth of the Indian economy – therefore their production pattern has been analysed using Basic Control Chart.

Integrated conservation planning for coral reefs: Designing conservation zones for multiple conservation objectives in spatial prioritisation

Decision-makers focus on representing biodiversity pattern, maintaining connectivity, and strengthening resilience to global warming when designing marine protected area (MPA) systems, especially in coral reef ecosystems. The achievement of these broad conservation objectives will likely require large areas, and stretch limited funds for MPA implementation. We undertook a spatial prioritisation of Brazilian coral reefs that considered two types of conservation zones (i.e. no-take and multiple use areas) and integrated multiple conservation objectives into MPA planning, while assessing the potential impact of different sets of objectives on implementation costs. We devised objectives for biodiversity, connectivity, and resilience to global warming, determined the extent to which existing MPAs achieved them, and designed complementary zoning to achieve all objectives combined in expanded MPA systems. In doing so, we explored interactions between different sets of objectives, determined whether refinements to the existing spatial arrangement of MPAs were necessary, and tested the utility of existing MPAs by comparing their cost effectiveness with an MPA system designed from scratch. We found that MPAs in Brazil protect some aspects of coral reef biodiversity pattern (e.g. threatened fauna and ecosystem types) more effectively than connectivity or resilience to global warming. Expanding the existing MPA system was as cost-effective as designing one from scratch only when multiple objectives were considered and management costs were accounted for. Our approach provides a comprehensive assessment of the benefits of integrating multiple objectives in the initial stages of conservation planning, and yields insights for planners of MPAs tackling multiple objectives in other regions.

Monstruos de una razón despierta. La influencia del relato bíblico en el desarrollo de las teorías científicas sobre el origen del hombre y sus variaciones

The triumph of the reason as the only way of natural knowledge was the most remarkable result of the paradigm shift occurred during the so-called Scientific Revolution, which reaches from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, and in which dogmatic reasoning lost progressively its role as the principal form of knowledge. Nevertheless, during the following centuries, a large part of the men of science were willing to favour the conversion of dogma into an agent of rational thought. This paper, tries to offer a point of reflection on the influence that the biblical account maintained in the construction of the modern scientific theories that, somehow, tried to explain relevant issues such as the origin of physical and moral differences between humans. The broader objective is to demonstrate that, as a form of cultural expression, the dogmatic-religious thought continued to play a transcendental role in the legitimation of a part of the modern rational scientific discourse, committed to defending the civilizing role and the physical and moral superiority of Western states, far beyond what the simple use of reason permitted.

Electronic payment mechanisms in social security: Extending the reach of benefit and contribution transactions

More often than not, the existing modes of contribution collection and benefit payment of social security organizations are adapted to the collective arrangements that characterize employer-employee relationships. Extending coverage to individuals in difficult-to-reach groups, however, may require new modalities of service that can cope with many separate, secure transactions rather than a few bulk data transfers between organizations. Recent developments in electronic payment show its wide applicability in enabling huge volumes of such individual transactions. It is in this light that the article explores the potentials of this technology and identifies possible arrangements through which electronic payments could surmount barriers that stand in the way of covering difficult-to-reach groups. The high level of mobile phone penetration on a global scale augurs well for using e-payment mechanisms to collect social security contributions and to deliver social security benefits and services. A generic model is used to describe the requisite elements to implement electronic payments in social protection programmes. Based on empirical evidence of current social protection practices from around the world, five scenarios are presented to describe possible configurations for electronic payment, from the simplest to the most sophisticated. The broader objective is to contribute in a practical manner to the international commitment to extend social protection to all, as defined by the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.

Self-Driving Contracts

Ex post gap filling is a central function of contract law. This is about to change. Predictive capabilities created by big data and artificial intelligence increasingly allow parties to draft contracts that fill their own gaps and interpret their own standards without adjudication. With these self-driving contracts, parties can agree to broad objectives and let automated analytics fill in the specifics based on real-time contingencies. Just as a self-driving car fills in the driving details to get its passenger to a designated end point, the self-driving contract fills in the contract details to achieve the parties’ designated outcome. This development suggests a new focus for the doctrine and theories of contract law. Our primary goal in this Article is to introduce and develop that new focus. For example, self-driving contracts are both complete and incomplete. They are complete in that they specify actions for every contingency. This reduces the likelihood of breach and renegotiation. It also means that notions of efficient breach and ex post hold-up will be of reduced importance in contract law. At the same time, self-driving contracts are also incomplete in ways that render current notions of definiteness and mutual assent irrelevant or at best misleading. Perhaps most importantly, with contracts being interpreted by their own internal software, contract law will have to focus on where that software comes from and how it operates. Markets will arise for third-party vendors who either certify or provide independent contract programming. In some cases, these will be new markets; in others, they will evolve from existing markets such as the market for contract arbitrators. Law will play a role in supporting and overseeing these markets. We explore that role, and how it will differ in markets for contracts between sophisticated parties and in markets for consumer contracts.

South-South Cooperation in health professional education: A literature review

In the literature on the evolution of funding approaches there is criticism of traditional funding strategies and the promotion of inclusive models, such as South-South Cooperation (SSC) and triangular models. The latter are felt to have a number of advantages. This article has four broad objectives: (i) to present a literature review on the evolution of Southern approaches to development co-operation; (ii) to indicate examples of current co-operative programmes in health and health professional education in Africa; (iii) to assess the advantages and disadvantages of these models; and (iv) to mention some emerging issues in monitoring and evaluation. The Boolean logic approach was used to search for applicable literature within three topic layers. Searches were conducted using PubMed, PLoS and other accessible databases. An initial draft of the article was presented to a group of academics and researchers at the Flemish Inter-University Council (VLIR-UOS)-Primafamed annual workshop held in August 2010 in Swaziland. Comments and suggestions from the group were included in later versions of the article. It is important to note that the existence of various funding models implemented by a variety of actors makes it difficult to measure their effects. In health and health professional education, however, SSC and triangular models of aid provide conditions for more effective programming through their focus on participation and long-term involvement. With an eye towards evaluating programmes, a number of salient issues are emerging. The importance of context is highlighted.

Comparing Anesthesiology Residency Training Structure and Requirements in Seven Different Countries on Three Continents.

Little has been published comparing the graduate medical education training structure and requirements across multiple countries. The goal of this study was to summarize and compare the characteristics of anesthesiology training programs in the USA, UK, Canada, Japan, Brazil, Denmark, and Switzerland as a way to better understand efforts to train anesthesiologists in different countries.Two physicians trained in each of the seven countries (convenience sample) were interviewed using a semi-structured approach. The interview was facilitated by use of a predetermined questionnaire that included, for example, the duration of post-medical school training and national requirements for certain rotations, a number of cases, faculty supervision, national in-training written exams, and duty hour limits. These data were augmented by review of each country’s publicly available residency training documents as available on the internet.Post-medical school anesthesia residency duration varied: three years (Brazil), four years (USA), five years (Canada and Switzerland), six years (Japan and Denmark) to nine years (UK), as did the number of explicitly required clinical rotations of a defined duration: zero (Denmark), one (Switzerland and UK), four (Brazil), six (Canada), and 12 (USA). Minimum case requirements exist in the USA, Japan, and Brazil, but not in the other countries. National written exams taken during training exist for all countries studied except Japan and Denmark. The countries studied increasingly aim to have competency-based education with milestone assessments. Training duty hour limits also varied including for example 37 hours/week averaged over a one month with limitations on night duties (Denmark), a weekly average of 48 hours taken over a 17 week period (UK), 50 hours/week maximum (Switzerland), 60 hours/week maximum (Brazil), and 80 hours/week averaged over four weeks (USA).Some countries have highly structured training programs with multiple national requirements with training principally carried out at a home institution. Other countries have a more decentralized and unregulated approach with fewer (if any) specific case or rotation requirements, where the trainee creates his/her own customized training to meet broad objectives and goals. The countries studied have different national training requirements, unique duty hour rules and are at varying stages in transitioning to an outcome based model of residency.

Directionality across Diversity: Governing Contending Policy Rationales in the Transition towards the Bioeconomy

Although the bioeconomy has been embraced by many governments around the world as a way of responding to the grand challenge of climate change, it remains unclear what the bioeconomy is and how it can contribute to achieving these broad policy objectives. The aim of this paper is to improve our understanding of whether, and how, the bioeconomy includes contending rationales for governance and policy-making. In order to do this, we apply a typology of three bioeconomy visions onto the policy discourse on the bioeconomy. These visions are (1) a bio-technology vision; (2) a bio-resource vision; and (3) a bio-ecology vision. Based on a discourse analysis of 41 submissions to a public hearing on the development of a bioeconomy strategy in Norway, the paper explores the actors involved in shaping the new bioeconomy and analyses their positions on this emerging field. The paper finds that it is possible to categorise the consultative inputs into these three visions, and also that the bio-resource vision is predominant, which reflects the structure of the national economy. Moreover, the paper reflects upon how the contending visions observed imply negotiations and power struggles, which may hamper directionality in the current socio-technical transition.

The Application of Ar-Rahan-Based Microcredit Facility as an Alternative Instrument for Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria

One of the major challenges facing developing nations like Nigeria is the continuous increase in the level of poverty, which widens the gap between the rich and the poor amidst increasing population and economic growth. In Nigeria, there are scores of microfinance outlets but their operational products are yet to stem the tides of people falling into the poverty bracket. UNICEF reported that about 70.8% of Nigerians live on less than a dollar per day amidst the country’s growing GDP. This rise in the level of poverty culminating from the uneven distribution of the national wealth continue to exacerbate economic instability and social insecurity in Nigeria. Government and other relevant bodies have continued to explore different kinds of solutions to minimize the multifarious challenges posed by the exponential rise in income disparity that has eating deep into the fabrics of the national economy. The micro financing structure has been proven to be helpful to stimulate greater financial inclusion of the low-income groups especially in developing economies. Focal among the many factors responsible for this challenge is the issue of interest charged by the banks to small and medium enterprises despite the rising rate of inflation. Meanwhile, the issue of transacting in riba is prohibited in Islam and some other religions because of its oppressive nature. This paper therefore proposes Ar-Rahn based credit facility aimed at ensuring that the unemployed, the poor and low income earners have access to non-interest based micro financing in Nigeria to aid their financial inclusion and achieve the broader objectives of microfinancing in Nigeria.

“This Was Being Done Only to Help”: Development and Forced Labor in Barue, Mozambique, 1959–1965

AbstractThis article examines the history of development and forced labor in Barue, a rural district in central Mozambique, in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, Barue was designated as a labor reserve, whose economic role was to send forced workers into migrant labor elsewhere. This was slated to change in the early 1960s, with the rise of a new developmental discourse in the Portuguese empire. This discourse promised to transform the economic model of Barue and other rural districts, by outlawing forced labor, minimizing migrant labor, and promoting rural agriculture. The Portuguese government, however, lacked the resources and the commitment necessary to actually change Barue's economy. Instead of development transforming Barue's economic model, the economic model transformed development, which was redefined as a series of modest social and economic improvements which neither changed Barue's economy nor reduced its dependence upon migrant labor. Nonetheless, while this narrower definition of “development” did not fulfill the transformative promise of its discursive progenitor, it was compatible with development's broader objective of defending and justifying the Portuguese empire against the threat of decolonization. The ultimate goal of safeguarding Portuguese rule made it possible to reconcile a discourse founded on change with a reality marked by continuity.

Acute Otitis Media Curriculum.

Studies have shown that clinicians do a poor job of diagnosing middle ear infections, and an inaccurate diagnosis may result in inappropriate treatment, such as overuse of antibiotics. Antibiotic overuse is known to lead to increased bacterial resistance and puts patients at risk of deleterious side effects, including allergic reactions, vomiting, diarrhea, and rash. In this curriculum, we teach three important topics for achieving a successful middle ear exam and diagnosis of pathology. The topics covered during the session are middle ear examination techniques, diagnosis of middle ear pathology and criteria for diagnosing acute otitis media, and treatment of acute otitis media. Each topic has a 30-minute lesson plan with broad goals, specific and measurable learning objectives, interactive learning activities, and assessment measures. Teaching activities include a mix of knowledge, skill, and attitude activities. Assessment measures aim at the highest level of Miller's pyramid of assessment when possible. Also included is a scholarship map that relates how this learning activity can fit into the assessment of learners at the program level by linking learning objectives with pediatric developmental milestones. The interactive nature of these lessons has been very well received by learners, and pediatric residents have had a self-perceived increase in skills. This curriculum provides a standardized approach to teaching the middle ear exam structured by educational rubrics and allows for accurate assessment of learners.

English

The caterpillar fungus, Yartsa Gunbu (Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung et al.), offers one prime example of the phenomenon, where a resource of immense economic value runs the risk of being over-exploited, more so when its exploitation remains a ‘common property resource’. The ever-increasing demand of the commodity in the international markets and concomitantly its ever-increasing price, hovering at present at US$ 20,000 per kilogram locally, has resulted in not just its rampant exploitation but also the degradation of the very habitat, thus endangering its sustainability. The present study conducted across 9 broad study sites, across 110 villages and 2511 harvesters, within the Pithoragarh district, Central Himalaya delves into the following broad objectives; (i) quantity of the harvested lot from the region; (ii) effect of over-harvesting vis-a-vis the degradation of the prime habitat on the quantity harvested each year, as also (iii) its effect on the population size of the host larva (Thitarodes), and lastly, (iv) comparative study of the income generated out of the sale of Yartsa Gunbu, with the traditional sources of income. Field visits were made to each of the village; information was gathered through open-ended questionnaire. Host population size study was conducted in three selective sites through hand-sorting method. While over-all quantity of the harvested lot has shown an increase; habitat-wise the quality harvested has shown a perceptible decline in three broad study sites, a trend likely to be replicated by rest of the sites, which currently though is experiencing an increased yield. Key words: Economy, ethnobotany, habitat ecology, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, sustainability, Yartsa Gunbu.

Reintegrating former fighters in the Congo: ambitious objectives, limited results

ABSTRACTCurrent scholarly works in International Relations grew increasingly preoccupied over the effectiveness and programmatic failure of international assistance, especially with regard to issues pertaining to the ‘security–development’ nexus and the post-9/11 ‘securitization’ agenda. Complex Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) programmes implemented worldwide since the late 1980s became a key component of international post-conflict intervention. With the extension of UN peacebuilding operations, DDR packages, which initially embraced short-term security goals in mere support of negotiated peace settlements, now entail significantly broader development objectives. Located at the interface of security and development approaches, DDR’s third phase, reintegration, has yielded limited outcomes despite growing efforts to implement long-term economic and social recovery activities. Using micro-level data derived from extensive fieldwork conducted in the Democratic Republic of Congo, this article argues that the challenges encountered in implementing reintegration might originate from high politicization of programme outcomes and recurrent neglect of local programme recipients and the socio-economic context in which they evolve. Despite formal endorsement of broad development objectives, this affected reintegration processes and their outcomes since what was really implemented consisted mainly of minimal activities prioritizing immediate security gains.

Defining the Scope of Free Movement of Citizens in the East African Community: The East African Court of Justice and Its Interpretative Approach

Free movement of persons is one of the core tenets of the East African Community (EAC) common market, making it seem like a purely economic project. Moreover the EAC aims at ultimately constituting itself into a political federation. As such, this article argues that the free movement of persons within the EAC should be interpreted in broad terms with the aim of asserting it as a fundamental right of EAC citizens. Such an interpretation should be championed by the East African Court of Justice, whose mandate is the interpretation and application of Community law. Yet, the court seems to prefer a narrowly textual and cautious interpretative approach that may not necessarily advance the broader objectives of the EAC. A human rights- oriented interpretative approach just might be the key in realizing a progressive transformation in the rationalization of the right to free movement within the EAC.

Minimizing and adding value to seafood processing wastes

This study investigated waste minimization and recycling opportunities in a seafood processing industry. An environmental performance evaluation was done to benchmark performance of the company with published data including Best Available Techniques (BATs) determined by The European IPPC Bureau (EIPPCB). Four broad objectives were set improving the resource efficiency and adding value to solid wastes/by-products. 18 different techniques/measures for reducing waste and adding value to the by-product were identified. Three of the techniques/measures were selected and implemented within the company. Specific water consumption decreased 65% and 77% in anchovy thawing and gutting processes, respectively. Because anchovy is the major product of the company, total water saving was 45.0%. Annual total water saving was estimated to be 29,002m3. The water recycling system introduced in the gutting process enabled t production of valuable fish oil/grease by-product. Payback period for the implementations was estimated to be 1.6 years. This study demonstrated that environmental and economic benefits can be obtained in the Turkish seafood industry.