Broad Math Research Articles

Skin and macular carotenoids and relations to academic achievement among school-aged children

ABSTRACT Objectives: Carotenoids are plant pigments that accumulate in human tissue (e.g. macula and skin) and can serve as biomarkers for diet quality; however, knowledge on skin and macular carotenoids in relation to cognition in children is limited. This study aimed to address this gap by assessing links between skin and macular carotenoids and academic achievement in school-aged children. Methods: Children 7-12 years old (n = 81) participated in a crosssectional study. Skin and macular carotenoids were measured with reflection spectroscopy and heterochromatic flicker photometry, respectively. Academic achievement was measured using Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ-IV). Body Mass Index was calculated using height and weight measurements, demographic information was collected using a family demographics and pediatric health history questionnaire, and carotenoid intake was assessed using 7-day diet records. Results: Skin carotenoids were not related to macular pigment (r = 0.08, p = 0.22). Adjusting for age, sex, BMI percentile, household income, and total carotenoid consumption (mg/1000kcal), skin carotenoids were predictive of math (β = 0.27, p = 0.02), broad math (β = 0.36, p < 0.01) and math calculation (β = 0.38, p < 0.01). Skin carotenoids displayed trending relationships with broad reading (β = 0.23, p = 0.05) and reading fluency (β = 0.22, p = 0.07). There were no significant associations between macular pigment and academic achievement (all β's ≤ 0.07, all p's ≥ 0.56). Discussion: Skin carotenoids were positively associated with academic abilities in children, while macular carotenoids did not display this relationship. Future interventions examining prospective effects of changes in carotenoids in different tissues on childhood academic achievement are warranted.

Blood lead levels and math learning in first year of school: An association for concern

Lead is a well-known neurotoxicant that continues to affect children's cognition and behavior. With the aim to examine the associations of lead exposure with math performance in children at the beginning of formal schooling, we conducted a cross-sectional study of first-grade students from 11 schools in Montevideo, Uruguay. Math abilities were assessed with tests from the Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz (Calculation, Math Facts Fluency, Applied Problems, Math Calculation Skills and Broad Maths). Separate generalized linear models (GLM) tested the association of blood lead level (BLL) and each math ability, adjusting for key covariates including age and sex, maternal education, household assets and Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Inventory score. In a complete-case of 252 first-grade students (age 67–105 months, 45% girls), mean ± SD blood lead level was 4.0 ± 2.2 μg/dL. Covariate-adjusted logistic models were used to examine the association between childhood BLLs and the odds of low math performance. BLL was negatively associated with scores on the Calculation test (β (95% CI): −0.18 (−0.33, −0.03)), Math Calculation Skills (−1.26 (−2.26, −0.25)), and Broad Maths cluster scores (−0.88 (−1.55, −0.21)). Similarly, performance on the Calculation test, as well as cluster scores for Broad Maths and Math Calculation Skills differed between children with BLLs <5 and ≥ 5 μg/dL (p < 0.01), being lower in children with higher BLLs. Finally, considering the likelihood of low test performance, each 1 μg/dL higher B–Pb was related to 27% higher likelihood for Maths Facts Fluency, 30% for Broad Math and Math Calculation Skills, and 31% for Calculation (p < 0.05). These results suggest that lead exposure is negatively associated with several basic skills that are key to math learning. These findings further suggest that the cognitive deficits related to lead exposure impact student achievement at very early stages of formal education.

Contribution of sustained attention abilities to real-world academic skills in children

Sustained attention is a critical cognitive ability that improves over the course of development and predicts important real-world outcomes, such as academic achievement. However, the majority of work demonstrating links between sustained attention and academic skills has been conducted in lab-based settings that lack the ecological validity of a more naturalistic environment, like school. Further, most studies focus on targeted academic measures of specific sub-skills and have not fully examined whether this relationship generalizes to broad measures of academic achievement that are used for important, real-world, academic advancement decisions, such as standardized test scores. To address this gap, we examined the role of sustained attention in predicting targeted and broad assessments of academic abilities, where all skills were assessed in group-based environments in schools. In a sample of over 700 students aged 9–14, we showed that attention was positively related to performance on targeted assessments (math fluency and reading comprehension), as well as broad academic measures (statewide standardized test scores). Moreover, we found that attention was more predictive of targeted math sub-skills compared to assessments of broad math abilities, but was equally predictive of reading for both types of measures. Our findings add to our understanding of how sustained attention is linked to academic skills assessed in more ‘real-world’, naturalistic school environments and have important implications for designing tools to support student’s academic success.

Longitudinal association between executive function and academic achievement in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 and plexiform neurofibromas.

To examine how executive functioning (EF) relates to academic achievement longitudinally in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) and plexiform neurofibromas (PNs) and whether age at baseline moderates this relationship. Participants included 88 children with NF1 and PNs (ages 6-18 years old, M = 12.05, SD = 3.62, 50 males) enrolled in a natural history study. Neuropsychological assessments were administered three times over 6 years. EF (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and attention) was assessed by performance-based (PB) and parent-reported (PR) measures. Multilevel growth modeling was used to examine how EF at baseline related to initial levels and changes in broad math, reading, and writing across time, controlling for demographic variables. The relationship between EF and academic achievement varied across EF and academic domains. Cognitive flexibility (PB) uniquely explained more variances in initial math, reading, and writing scores; working memory (PB) uniquely explained more variances in initial levels of reading and writing. The associations between EF and academic achievement tended to remain consistent across age groups with one exception: Lower initial levels of inhibitory control (PR) were related to a greater decline in reading scores. This pattern was more evident among younger (versus older) children. Findings emphasize the heterogeneous nature of academic development in NF1 and that EF skills could help explain the within-group variability in this population. Routine cognitive/academic monitoring via comprehensive assessments and early targeted treatments consisting of medication and/or systematic cognitive interventions are important to evaluate for improving academic performance in children with NF1 and PNs.

Beyond individual tests: Youth's cognitive abilities on their math and writing skills

A cross-battery study of cognitive-achievement relations, which simultaneously analyzes several intelligence and achievement test scores, allows for the analysis of more broadly defined constructs that transcend test batteries. That was the approach taken in this study. Six intelligence tests, represented by 66 subtests, and three achievement tests, represented by 10 subtests, were analyzed. Our sample included 3927 youth aged 6 to 18. Youth's general intelligence (g), verbal comprehension-knowledge, and working memory significantly explained their broad math and broad writing skills. Other broad cognitive abilities influenced only one of the academic skills. Learning efficiency and processing influenced youth's broad writing and visual processing and fluid reasoning influenced their broad math skills. The influence of g and fluid reasoning were difficult to separate statistically. Most of the cognitive-achievement relations were consistent across age.

A-143 Understanding the Heterogeneous Effects of MELAS: A Comparative Study of Juvenile Sisters

Abstract Objective: Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes (MELAS) is a rare syndrome resulting from mutations in mitochondrial DNA. A neuropsychological profile of MELAS typically shows deficits in executive function, attention, language, memory, visuospatial, and motor functioning. To our knowledge, MELAS has been studied in single cases only. Here we examine the neuropsychological profile of juvenile siblings with MELAS. Participants and Methods: Biological sisters aged 13 (affected) and 11 (non-affected) years, concordant for MELAS mutation but discordant for disease status. Active disease in the affected sister was triggered by HGH treatment for small stature. They were referred for neuropsychological testing to determine the nature and severity of current cognitive, emotional, and functional deficits following MELAS diagnoses. Clinical difference in cognitive performance score was defined as a difference of &amp;gt;1 SD in standardized scores. Results: Performance on 48 neuropsychological test measures consistent with the MELAS presentation were contrasted between the sisters. The unaffected sister performed in the average range on most measures. The affected sister performed &amp;gt;1 standard deviation lower on 21 measures compared to the unaffected sister -- specifically on measures of motor strength, motor speed, visuomotor integration, visuospatial abilities, executive functioning, broad math, academic applications, phonological awareness, and rapid symbolic naming. Conclusions: The results of this study reveal differences in the cognitive profiles of juvenile siblings with the MELAS mutation but different disease status (affected vs. not affected). Results are generally consistent with previous research in revealing deficits in executive functioning, visuospatial abilities, motor functioning, and language in the affected sibling.

Skin Carotenoids and Relations to Intellectual Abilities and Academic Achievement Among School-Aged Children

ObjectivesCarotenoids are pigments found abundantly in vegetables that accumulate in the human body (i.e., the skin and central nervous system) and can serve as biomarkers for higher diet quality. Skin carotenoids have been previously correlated with cognitive function in adults; however, the relation between skin carotenoids and cognition in children is unknown. This study aimed to assess the link between skin carotenoids and cognitive function in school-aged children. MethodsChildren ages 7–12 (N = 106) participated in a cross-sectional study. Skin carotenoids were measured using reflection spectroscopy. Intellectual abilities and academic achievement were measured using Woodcock-Johnson IV. Dietary carotenoid intake was assessed using the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire and body fat percentage was measured using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Following initial bivariate correlations, a partial spearman correlation was conducted assessing relationships between skin carotenoids and Woodcock-Johnson IV following adjustment of covariates. ResultsSkin carotenoids were inversely correlated to body fat percentage and positively associated with household income and dietary carotenoids. Additionally, bivariate correlations revealed that General Intellectual Ability and multiple subtests of achievement were positively related to skin carotenoid status. Following adjustment for body fat percentage, household income, and dietary carotenoids, only quantitate reasoning and broad math skills (applied problems, calculation, and math facts fluency) were positively related to skin carotenoids (rs = 0.24, P = 0.02; rs = 0.225, P = 0.027). ConclusionsSkin carotenoids were positively associated with quantitate reasoning, a form of fluid reasoning, and broad math skills in school-aged children. Although carotenoid status was positively associated with WCJ subsets, these relationships were partially accounted for by household income, child adiposity, and dietary intake. Skin carotenoids were positively related to several cognitive function measures in school-aged children. Funding SourcesThis study was funded by the Egg Nutrition Center.

Prenatal exposure to air pollution is associated with childhood inhibitory control and adolescent academic achievement

BackgroundPrenatal air pollution exposure is associated with reductions in self-regulation and academic achievement. Self-regulation has been separately linked with academic achievement. Understudied, however, are the contributions of pollution exposure to inhibitory control, a facet of self-regulation, and whether pollution-related inhibitory control deficits are associated with impairment in academic achievement. MethodsParticipants were recruited from a prospective birth cohort. Measures of prenatal airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) during the third trimester of pregnancy, inhibitory control (NEPSY Inhibition) at mean age = 10.4 years, and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-III at mean age = 13.7 were available for N = 200 participants. Multiple linear regression examined sex-dependent and sex independent associations among prenatal PAH, childhood inhibitory control, and academic achievement during adolescence, and whether childhood inhibitory control mediated associations between prenatal PAH and academic achievement during adolescence, controlling for ethnicity, maternal country of birth, language of prenatal interview, maternal marital status, maternal years of education, material hardship, quality of home caregiving environment, and early life stress. ResultsAcross all participants, higher prenatal PAH was significantly associated with worse spelling skills (WJ-III Spelling, β = −0.16, 95%Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.30, −0.02, p = .02). Trend level associations between higher prenatal PAH and worse reading comprehension (WJ-III Passage Comprehension, β = −0.13, 95%CI: 0.28, 0.01, p = .07) and math skills (WJ-III Broad Math, β = −0.11, 95%CI: 0.25, 0.03, p = .11) were detected. Across all participants, higher PAH was significantly associated with worse inhibitory control (β = −0.15, 95%CI: 0.29,-0.01 p = .03). Better inhibitory control was significantly associated with better reading comprehension (WJ-III Passage Comprehension, β = 0.22, 95%CI: 0.09, 0.36, p < .002) and math skills (WJ-III Broad Math Index, β = 0.32, 95%CI: 0.19, 0.45, p < .001), and trend level associations with better spelling skills (WJ-III Spelling, β = 0.12, 95%CI: 0.02, 0.26, p = .10). Inhibitory control significantly mediated PAH-related achievement effects for Passage Comprehension (β = −0.61, 95%CI: 1.49, −0.01) and Broad Math Index (β = −1.09, 95%CI: 2.36, −0.03). ConclusionsHigher prenatal PAH exposure and lower childhood inhibitory control were associated with worse spelling, passage comprehension, and math in adolescence. Notably, childhood inhibitory control mediated PAH exposure-related effects on achievement in adolescents. Identifying these potential exposure-related phenotypes of learning problems may promote interventions that target inhibitory control deficits rather than content specific deficits.

Finding patterns in objects and numbers: Repeating patterning in pre-K predicts kindergarten mathematics knowledge

Both recent evidence and research-based early mathematics curricula indicate that repeating patterns—predictable sequences that follow a rule—are a topic of major importance for mathematics development. The purpose of the current study was to help build a theory for how early repeating patterning knowledge contributes to early math development, focusing on development in children aged 4–6 years. The current study examined the relation between 65 preschool children’s repeating patterning knowledge (via a fast, teacher-friendly measure) and their end-of-kindergarten broad math and numeracy knowledge, controlling for verbal and visual-spatial working memory (WM) skills as well as end-of-pre-K (pre-kindergarten) broad math knowledge. Relations were also examined between repeating patterning and specific aspects of numeracy knowledge—knowledge of the count sequence to 100 and the successor principle. Children’s repeating patterning knowledge was significantly predictive of their broad math and general numeracy knowledge, as well as one specific aspect of their numeracy knowledge (counting to 100), even after controlling for verbal and visual-spatial WM skills. Further, repeating patterning knowledge remained a unique predictor of general numeracy knowledge and counting to 100 after controlling for end-of-pre-K broad math knowledge. The relation between repeating patterning and mathematics may be explained by the central role that identifying predictable sequences based on underlying rules plays in both. Theories of math development and early math instruction standards should thus give even greater attention to the role of children’s repeating patterning knowledge.

Preschoolers’ broad mathematics experiences with parents during play

The current study broadens our understanding of preschoolers’ early math experiences with parents, recognizing that math knowledge and experiences are inclusive of numeracy as well as non-numeracy domains. Parents and preschoolers (N = 45) were observed exploring three domains of early mathematics knowledge (i.e., number, space, and pattern) during play in three activities (playing cards, building with blocks, and stringing beads, all with activity suggestions). Children were administered a broad math and numeracy measure and individual measures of spatial and patterning skills concurrently and 7 months later. Dyads explored math broadly across most activities but emphasized number more than space or patterning. In addition, there was more overall math exploration during card and bead play than during block play, with the greatest parent support during card play. Parent support was not linked to children’s skills, although children’s exploration of space and patterns related moderately to their concurrent spatial and pattern skills. Overall, parents and young children explored a variety of early math domains in guided play contexts, with an emphasis on numeracy. Future work should aim to increase the breadth and rigor of individual concepts that parents and preschoolers explore during play.

A randomized evaluation of 15 versus 25 weeks of individual tutoring for children in care

BackgroundBecause children in out-of-home care lag behind their peers in educational achievement, there have been increased efforts to improve their academic success. Previous research has found that 25 weeks of the Teach Your Children Well (TYCW) tutoring program enhances the academic skills of children in care. ObjectiveThis randomized control trial aimed to assess how much TCYW tutoring is enough to accelerate learning.Participants and Setting: In this study, we compared a shorter version of the TCYW method (15 weeks) with a longer version (25 weeks) in a sample of 72 children in care. Method36 children were randomly assigned to the 15-week group and 36 to the 25-week group. The reading and math tutoring was conducted on a one-on-one basis by paid adult tutors in the children's placement homes. ResultsWith but one exception, ANCOVAs via multiple hierarchical regression revealed no significant differences between the 15 and 25-week tutoring groups on the Woodcock-Johnson (WJ) III reading and math subtests. After we had collapsed across experimental conditions, paired t-tests revealed significant pre-test/post-test improvements on WJ-III Letter-Word Identification, Reading Fluency, Broad Reading composite, Calculation, Math Fluency, Applied Problems, and Broad Math composite. An attribute-treatment interaction analysis, conducted to assess potential moderating variables of the effectiveness of tutoring, revealed that children with higher executive functioning benefited more from the 15-week group. ConclusionsFindings suggest that a shorter version of the TYCW program is as effective as a longer version in improving math and reading skills for children in care.

Low level arsenic exposure, B-vitamins, and achievement among Uruguayan school children.

Millions of children globally, including the U.S., are exposed to low levels of arsenic from water and food. Arsenic is a known neurotoxicant at high levels but its effects at lower exposure levels are understudied. Arsenic methylation capacity, influenced by B-vitamin intake and status, potentially influences arsenic toxicity. In a cross-secitonal study of 5-8 year-old children from Montevideo, we assessed the relationship between urinary arsenic (U-As) and academic achievement, and tested for effect modification by B-vitamin intake, status, and arsenic methylation capacity. Broad math and reading scores were calculated based on six subtests (calculation, math facts fluency, applied problems, sentence reading fluency, letter word identification, passage comprehension) from the Woodcock-Muñoz Achievement Battery. B-vitamin intake was assessed from two non-consecutive 24-h dietary recalls, serum folate and vitamin B-12 levels were measured in a subset of participants. Arsenic methylation capacity was measured as the proportion of urinary monomethylarsonic acid (%MMA). Multiple imputation using chained equations was conducted to account for missing covariate and exposure data. Ordinal regressions assessed associations between U-As and achievement score tertiles in the complete case and imputed samples. A "B-vitamin index" was calculated using principal component analysis. Interactions by urinary %MMA and the B-vitamin index were assessed. Median specific gravity adjusted U-As was 11.7 μg/L (range: 2.6, 50.1). We found no association between U-As and broad math and reading scores, nor effect modification by %MMA or B-vitamins. At low-levels of exposure, U-As does not appear to affect children's academic achievement.

The home math environment: More than numeracy

The goal of the current study is to develop a more complete understanding of the early home math environment, encompassing both numeracy and non-numeracy aspects of that environment. Parents of preschoolers (n = 63) were surveyed about their support of three components of early mathematics knowledge (i.e., numeracy, spatial, and pattern) as well as parents’ math-related beliefs about themselves and their children. Children were administered a broad math knowledge assessment which included a numeracy subscale, and individual measures of spatial and patterning skills in the fall (concurrently). Broad math knowledge was measured again in the spring of the preschool year. Parents indicated providing some support of early math development through numeracy, spatial, and patterning activities, with a stronger emphasis on numeracy than pattern and space. Parents’ child-specific ability beliefs were related to their numeracy, pattern, and broad math support, while their parent-specific ability beliefs were related to their spatial support. Parent support was rarely linked to child skills, except that numeracy support related to concurrent numeracy knowledge. Findings suggest that although parents do support a broad range of early math skills at home, parents tend to prioritize supporting early numeracy. Parents’ beliefs, especially about their child’s academic abilities, may influence components of the early home math environment, but future research is needed to better understand the relations between parent’s academic beliefs and the home math environment they create.

Screening for Math in Early Grades: Is Reading Enough?

Difficulties in reading and math are more likely to occur simultaneously than difficulties in either area alone; however, the research on that comorbidity is relatively sparse. The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between early reading skills as predictors of math achievement. A group of 102 kindergarten and 65 first-grade students were assessed with curriculum-based measures of early reading and early math, and a measure of broad math achievement. The results of multiple regression analyses indicated that when early numeracy was controlled for, the measures of early reading did not explain unique variance in math achievement among students. Interestingly, screening with only measures of early reading skills yielded acceptable area under the curve (AUC) values but did not yield accurate identification of students at risk for math difficulties (MD) when misclassification and specificity were taken into account. Results suggest that early math measures are most accurate in identifying students at risk for MD in early grades. Findings provide further insight into the relation between math and reading skills at the start of formal schooling. Authors provide recommendations for a combination of reading and math screeners to predict broad math achievement.

C-23Complex Sequencing Predicts Broad Reading and Broad Math Achievement in Children and Adolescents with Traumatic Brain Injury

C-23Complex Sequencing Predicts Broad Reading and Broad Math Achievement in Children and Adolescents with Traumatic Brain Injury

Development of brain systems for nonsymbolic numerosity and the relationship to formal math academic achievement.

A central question in cognitive and educational neuroscience is whether brain operations supporting nonlinguistic intuitive number sense (numerosity) predict individual acquisition and academic achievement for symbolic or "formal" math knowledge. Here, we conducted a developmental functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study of nonsymbolic numerosity task performance in 44 participants including 14 school age children (6-12 years old), 14 adolescents (13-17 years old), and 16 adults and compared a brain activity measure of numerosity precision to scores from the Woodcock-Johnson III Broad Math index of math academic achievement. Accuracy and reaction time from the numerosity task did not reliably predict formal math achievement. We found a significant positive developmental trend for improved numerosity precision in the parietal cortex and intraparietal sulcus specifically. Controlling for age and overall cognitive ability, we found a reliable positive relationship between individual math achievement scores and parietal lobe activity only in children. In addition, children showed robust positive relationships between math achievement and numerosity precision within ventral stream processing areas bilaterally. The pattern of results suggests a dynamic developmental trajectory for visual discrimination strategies that predict the acquisition of formal math knowledge. In adults, the efficiency of visual discrimination marked by numerosity acuity in ventral occipital-temporal cortex and hippocampus differentiated individuals with better or worse formal math achievement, respectively. Overall, these results suggest that two different brain systems for nonsymbolic numerosity acuity may contribute to individual differences in math achievement and that the contribution of these systems differs across development.

Short-term effects of grade retention on the growth rate of Woodcock–Johnson III broad math and reading scores

We investigated the effects of grade retention in first grade on the growth of the Woodcock–Johnson broad mathematics and reading scores over three years using linear growth curve modeling on an academically at-risk sample. A large sample ( n = 784) of first grade children who were at risk for retention was initially identified based on low literacy scores. Scores representing propensity for retention were constructed based on 72 variables collected in comprehensive baseline testing in first grade. We closely matched 97 pairs of retained and promoted children based on their propensity scores using optimal matching procedures. This procedure adjusted for baseline differences between the retained and promoted children. We found that grade retention decreased the growth rate of mathematical skills but had no significant effect on reading skills. In addition, several potential moderators of the effect of retention on growth of mathematical and reading skills were identified including limited English language proficiency and children's conduct problems.

Arithmetic fact mastery in young children: A longitudinal investigation

Children with poor arithmetic fact mastery ( n=45) at the end of third grade were compared to grade-level peers with good arithmetic fact mastery ( n=60) in competencies related to reading and mathematics. Children were assessed longitudinally across second and third grades. When predictor variables such as IQ were held constant, the poor fact mastery and good fact mastery groups performed at about the same level and progressed at a comparable rate on math story problems and on broad reading achievement. The groups also progressed at a comparable rate on broad math achievement, although children with poor fact mastery performed at a significantly lower level. Children with poor fact mastery showed remarkably little growth on timed number facts during the study period, despite normal growth in other areas of mathematics. Deficits in fact mastery are highly persistent and appear to be independent of reading and language abilities.

Relationship of Cognitive Functioning and Aggressive Behavior with Emotionally Disabled and Specific Learning Disabled Students

This study investigated the relationship between cognitive functioning and Emotionally Disabled (ED) and Specific Learning Disabled (SLD) students' aggressive behavior. Secondarily, it was of interest to examine the two groups' academic functioning and social factors related to aggressive behavior. Data were analyzed using initial and most recent Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Third Edition (WISC-III) scores and Woodcock—Johnson—Revised (WJ-R) scores obtained from students' special education folders. District discipline records and local juvenile court records were searched for documentation of participants' aggressive conduct disorder (CD) behavior. The sample consisted of 322 special education students from an urban school district in the American Southwest. Of this sample, 168 students had been previously identified as ED and 154 as SLD. Seventy percent were males and 30% were females, which approximated the gender distribution of the district's special education population. The ethnic distribution of the sample included White (67%), Hispanic (24%), Black (7%), and other (2%), which was representative of both the district and its special education population. Results indicated that ED and SLD students identified as aggressive demonstrated significantly lower initial WISC-III Verbal IQ scores in comparison to their initial Performance IQ scores. However, this relationship was not observed in subsequent testing. ED students demonstrated a significant decrease in WISC-III Full Scale IQ scores when initial and most recent scores were compared. In addition, aggressive ED students demonstrated a significant decrease in WISC-III Verbal IQ scores. Also, both aggressive ED and aggressive SLD students demonstrated a significant decrease in WJ-R Broad Math scores whereas nonaggressive students' scores showed no significant change. Furthermore, aggressive behavior was negatively related to families' social status; students from single-parent households had a significantly higher incidence of reported aggressive behaviors. No relationship between aggressive behavior and either ethnicity or gender was found.