British Thermal Units Research Articles

Sustainable bio-jet fuel synthesis techniques for the aviation industry

Abstract In the near future, the aviation industry is expected to significantly increase the usage of “drop-in” bio-jet fuel as the technologies in biofuel production advances and matures. Given the high rate of growth in the aviation sector, the demand for aerial transportation of passenger and cargo is projected to increase by two-fold in the next twenty years. This will raise the global aviation fuel consumption to an estimated 22.48 quadrillion British thermal unit (BTU) by 2040. To meet these high energy demands, it is necessary to develop alternative and sustainable methods to produce jet fuel. In light of this, intense research and numerous fundings have been allocated into developing efficient production methods for bio-jet fuel. Conventional jet fuel emits a considerable amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) when combusted, which contributes to global warming. Compared to traditional jet fuel, bio-jet fuel is a renewable energy source and regarded to emit less GHGs. Bio-jet fuel can be produced using a diverse range of both edible (food crops such as soybean, corn, and sugar cane) and inedible (such as energy crops, agricultural wastes, and lignocellulosic biomass) feedstocks. There are various promising technologies that can produce aviation biofuel, which includes oil-to-jet [hydroprocessed ester and fatty acids (HEFA)], alcohol-to-jet, sugar-to-jet [hydroprocessing of fermented sugars (HFS)], and syngas-to-jet [Fisher-Tropsch (FT)]. Compared to the other techniques, HEFA bio-jet fuel can be sold at a lower price because HEFA requires less capital investment, capital cost, and energy cost. Although FT technique require high capital investment, FT bio-jet fuel can be sold at medium price due to its matured technology. The breakeven cost of ATJ and HFS bio-jet fuel varies greatly due to the supply and cost of sugar-rich feedstocks, as well as short lifespan of enzymes. Although bio-jet fuel has the potential to replace petroleum jet fuel in the future, there are still many technological and socio-economic challenges that must be overcome. Therefore, this paper aims to highlight the current status, technological advances, and economic challenges of bio-jet fuel production for energy transition in the aviation industry.

Qualitative and quantitative simulation of best management practices (BMPs) for contaminated megasite remediation using the SiteWise™ tool

Remediation activities, particularly in megasites, may induce substantial secondary environmental impacts that must be addressed for green and sustainable remediation (GSR) practices. Only limited studies are available quantitatively assessing the environmental footprint and environmental benefits of implementing Best Management Practices (BMPs) in megasite remediation. This study used the SiteWise™ tool, a quantitative environmental footprint assessment for scenario simulation and benefit quantification of BMPs, on a contaminated megasite in Hebei Province, China. We observed a considerable environmental footprint and energy from the remediation. Taking the final implementation alternative (Alt 1) as an example, which is characterized by combining multiple remediation techniques, the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reached 113,474 t, the energy used was 2,082,841 million metric British thermal units (MMBTU), and other air pollutant emissions (NOx, SOx, and PM10) amounted to 856 t. Further BMP analyses highlighted the benefits of substituting the conventional solidification/stabilization agent with willow woodchip-based biochar, which could reduce GHG emissions by 50,806 t and energy used by 926,648 MMBTU. The overall environmental benefits of implementing all applicable BMPs in the remediation were significant, with a 66.85%, 50.15%, and 56.05% reduction in GHG emissions, energy used, and other air pollutants, respectively. Our study provides insights into quantifying the environmental footprint and exploring emission reduction pathways for contaminated megasite remediation. It also offers a feasible path for quantifying the environmental benefits of BMPs, promoting the development of GSR of contaminated sites.

Techno-economic and life cycle analysis of synthetic natural gas production from low-carbon H2 and point-source or atmospheric CO2 in the United States

Synthetic natural gas (SNG) is of great interest in reducing fossil energy consumption while maintaining compatibility with existing NG infrastructure and end-use applications equipment. SNG can be produced using clean H2 generated from renewable or nuclear energy and CO2 captured from stationary sources or the atmosphere. In this study, we develop an engineering process model of SNG production using Aspen Plus® and production scales reported by the industry. We examine the levelized cost and life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of SNG production under various CO2 supply scenarios. Considering the higher cost of H2 transportation compared with CO2 transportation, we assume that CO2 feedstock is transported via pipeline to the H2 production location, which is collocated with the SNG plant. We also evaluate the cost of CO2 captured from the atmosphere, assuming the direct air capture process can occur near the SNG facility. Depending on the CO2 supply chain, the levelized cost of SNG is estimated to be in the range of $45–76 per million British thermal units (MMBtu) on a higher heating value (HHV) basis. The SNG production cost may be reduced to $27–57/MMBtu-HHV by applying a tax credit available in the United States for low-carbon H2 production (45 V). With a lower electricity price of 3ȼ/kWh for water electrolysis and accounting for a 45 V tax credit, the SNG cost reaches parity with the cost of fossil NG. Depending on the CO2 supply chain, SNG can reduce life cycle GHG emissions by 52–88 % compared with fossil NG.

Techno-economic analysis of natural gas distribution using a small-scale liquefied natural gas carrier

The design of the gas distribution for small-demand power plants located on remote islands is logistically challenging. The use of small-scale liquefied natural gas (LNG) vessels can be an option for these logistic problems. This paper aims to conduct a techno-economic analysis of using small-scale LNG vessels for gas distribution to the power plants that are spread across different islands. Route optimisation has been conducted using the capacitated vehicle routing problem method. The ship’s principal dimensions were determined using the aspect ratio from a linear regression of existing small-scale LNG vessels. As a case study, the gas demands for a gas power plant in eastern Indonesia were analysed into four distribution clusters. The results of the techno-economic analysis showed that the four distribution clusters have different characteristics regarding the LNG requirements, location characteristics and ship specifications. The capacity of small-scale LNG vessels feasible in terms of technical aspects varies from 2500, 5000, to > 10,000 m3 with variations in the ship speed depending on the location of the power plants. The amount of cargo requested and the shipping distance was affected to the cost of LNG transportation. The economic assessment proposes that the feasible investment by considering small-scale LNG cargo distribution, from the case study shows that with a ship capacity of 5000 m3 feasible margin rate is ≥ 3 USD/metric million British thermal units with an internal rate of return of 10% and estimated payback period is less than 15 years.

Analysis of Combustion of a Steam Boiler with Chips and Bark as Fuel

PT. Medco is a business entity engaged in managing industrial plantation forests and one of the company’s branches is in South Papua—Merauke. This company manages wood to be processed into raw materials for paper and other purposes. Timber production activities that produce waste in very large volumes, these wastes still have a high calorific value which their utilization will produce fuels that can be used, one of which is as fuel for boilers for power generation. This study uses a qualitative method where research is conducted to obtain the necessary data to then be analyzed again by calculating combustion using the British Thermal Unit (BTU) analysis method. Preliminary data required for qualitative analysis include operational and technical steam boiler data. The fuel used in the combustion process is wood chips and bark obtained from production residue or what can be called waste. The results of the calculation of the combustion process in the 1 × 7 MW steam boiler (PLTU) PT. Medco shows Carbon (C) 34.47%, Hydrogen (H2) 4.22%, Sulfur (S) 0.06%, Oxygen (O2) 30.75%, Nitrogen (N2) 0.22%, Water (H2O) 27.80%, Ash 2.48% and a calorific value of Hight Heating Value (HHV) 9160.8 Btu/lb, Excess water 30% and fuel consumption of 16784 kg/h. The mass flow rate of steam is 35 tons or 66150 lb/h with a combustion gas temperature of 1490 °C and an adiabatic temperature formed in the furnace of 1075 °C. Primary air requirement is 43594.91 kg of air and the secondary air requirement is 18727.24 kg of air. The heat energy that is put into the steam boiler from the results of the combustion process is 98.24 × 106 BTU/h or 28.77204 MW, the heat that is utilized for the process of changing the fluid phase of the liquid in the water pipes along the boiler wall is only 83.038 × 106 BTU/h or 24.31975425 MW. So, it can be concluded that there is an energy loss of 15.2020 × 106 BTU/h or 4.452286 MW.

Geothermal Potential Runs Hot in Texas

When it comes to oil and gas production in the US, Texas is king. In 2022, the Lone Star state pumped out 1.83 billion bbl of crude in total—that’s over three times the next state on the list, New Mexico. Over the same period, Texas set a record with 11.2 Tcf of natural gas production, more than 3.5 Tcf higher than second place Pennsylvania. With renewables, Texas can hang its hat on being the number one wind energy producer in the US, generating about 93 TWh of electricity from wind in 2020, according to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA)—almost triple that of second-place Iowa. Texas is number two on the list when it comes to solar capacity with around 15 MW as of the second quarter of 2022. California has just over 37 MW of capacity. With leadership positions in most commercial power-generation endeavors, Texas is behind the curve when it comes to exploiting geothermal energy. In fact, most of the nation has yet to embrace geothermal power, beyond some projects in California. According to the EIA, in 2020, consumption of renewable energy in the US grew for the fifth year in a row, reaching a record high of 11.6 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu), or 12% of total US energy consumption. While wind led the way with 26% of the total, only 2% was geothermal. All of this, however, could be changing. A recent report about the future of geothermal energy in Texas—a year-long multidisciplinary, cross-collaborative effort from researchers at five Texas universities, the University Lands Office, and the International Energy Agency—found the state’s geology presents a large and promising opportunity to develop geothermal resources. The 400-page report showed the amount of heat below state lands is many thousands of times larger than what would be needed to power not only Texas, but the world. The report was funded and supported by the Cynthia and George Mitchell Foundation, The Educational Foundation of America, and Project InnerSpace, a nonprofit organization focused on expanding the use of geothermal energy globally. The heat beneath Texas varies with the geography, but most of the population is at or near good temperature environments, particularly in the eastern, coastal, and far west regions. However, all areas are hot enough if you drill deep enough. It becomes a matter of continually improving economics of drilling to deeper depths. In general, the hotter the better, but a good minimum rule of thumb is about 150°C (or 300°F) as a target temperature (Fig. 1). Houston’s subsurface temperatures in that ballpark, for instance, can be found around 4.5 km to 5.0 km deep (2.5 to 3.0 miles). Under Austin, Texas, which is more centrally located in the state, those temperatures lurk deeper—6.0 to 9.0 km (3.5 to 5.5 miles). “Rock is a great heat battery and the upper 10 km, or 6 miles, of the earth’s crust as a battery of heat holds an estimated 1000s of years’ worth of our energy needs in the form of accessible heat energy,” said Ken Wisian, associate director of the Bureau of Economic Geology at University of Texas at Austin. “That’s an immense resource to tap and one that gets us all excited.” Additional oilfield drilling has helped better define the temperatures of the rock below the state. In a recent preliminary update of the assessment of temperatures below Texas, it was found that temperatures are generally 10 to 15% hotter than were previously thought. This is compared to studies conducted over a decade ago and marks a significant improvement in the area’s geothermal potential.

Bioethanol Production from Breadnut (Artocarpus Camansi) Rind Waste as a Sustainable Energy Source

Global energy consumption of fossil fuels which is expected to rise by about 177 quadrillion British thermal units (BTU). The scarcity of oil and fossil fuels along with the demand for energy needs can be overcome by switching to renewable and environmentally friendly energy. Biofuels can be an alternative energy and provide a clean green environment. Breadfruit peel waste is high in carbohydrates and sugar so have potential to be optimized into bioethanol. This research aims to determine the effect of variations in yeast mass and fermentation time on the bioethanol content of breadfruit rind through the distillation process. This study applies the fermentation method with variations (PI: 8 grams 72 hours), (P2: 10 grams 72 hours), (P3: 8 grams 96 hours), and (P4: 10 grams 96 hours). Then, the ethanol content was tested with Perkin Elmer Clarus 580 (GC) Perkin Elmer HS Turbo Matrix 40 (headspace sampler). The optimum results were found in the variation of yeast mass of 8 grams and fermentation time of 96 hours, with the resulting ethanol content of 339.8 mg/L at simplo and 338.08 mg/L at the time of duplication or an average of 338.94 mg/L.

Microstructure and chemical characterizations with soft computing models to evaluate the influence of calcium oxide and silicon dioxide in the fly ash and cement kiln dust on the compressive strength of cement mortar

Environmental issues are raised from the global warming due to raised Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions of factories worldwide. Cement manufacturing is highly energy- and emissions-intensive because of the extreme heat required to produce it. Producing a ton of cement requires 4.7 million British Thermal Units (BTU) of energy, equivalent to about 400 pounds of coal, and generates nearly a ton of CO2. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce cement production; as a result, it contributes to solving those issues. This study investigates the effect of two major chemical compositions in the CKD and FA on the long-term compressive strength of cement mortar, especially their Calcium Oxide (CaO) and Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) contents; furthermore, their chemical, mineralogical, and microstructure are compared. In addition, 228 data for FA-modified cement mortar and 167 data for CKD-modified cement mortar were collected from previous literature and used to develop predictive models to forecast the compressive strength of cement mortar modified with CKD and FA. The dataset contained different mix proportions of the cement mortar, such as curing times, various SiO2 (%), CaO (%), water/cement ratio (w/c), and curing times up to 90 days. The result of the Multi expression programming (MEP), full quadratic (FQ), Nonlinear regression (NLR), and artificial neural network (ANN) models were used to quantify the effect of CaO and SiO2. The short-term compressive strength of cement mortar modified with fly ash (from 1 to 28 days) decreases with increasing the fly ash content, while the long-term compressive strength (from 28 to 90 days) increases by up to 15% replacement of cement with fly ash. However, the compressive strength of the cement kiln dust modified-cement mortar decreases with increasing the cement kiln dust content. The sensitivity evaluation discovered that the most influential parameter for predicting compressive of the cement mortar modified with CKD and modified with FA is the curing time.

Desulfurization of sour crude oil using an invasive weed adsorbent: An efficient, eco-friendly, and ultra-low-cost option

Desulfurization is a technology commonly used by refineries to mitigate the environmental burden caused by toxic gas emissions from hydrocarbon fuels. Expanding global population will increase liquid fuel demand by 20% between 2018 and 2050, with a total consumption of 240 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) in 2050. Conventional catalytic Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) accounts for high cost and severe operating conditions (high temperature, pressure, catalyst poisoning and H2S safety). While studies have shown that adsorptive desulfurization (ADS) is highly effective in the removal of organic sulfur, limitations in the regeneration of adsorbent and selection of adsorbent with suitable structure to remove organic sulfur compounds exist. On the other hand, Prosopis juliflora, the world's most threatening invasive weed causes multifaceted environmental problems. The present study offers a novel solution that addresses both these issues contributing to climate change. Desulfurization of sour crude oil sample is performed using chemical-free, non-activated charcoal obtained from invasive weed species as adsorbent. XRD analysis showed amorphous structure and FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of CC bending functional group of the adsorbent. Adsorption-desorption isotherm showed presence of mesopores with pore diameter of 2.718 ​nm. Kinetic study findings reported 46% removal of total sulfur. GCMS findings showed efficient removal of some organic sulfur, including 100% removal of dibenzothiophene 4-methyl -. The equilibrium data is best represented by Freundlich isotherm. ICP-OES tests indicate the removal of toxic elements as well. The cost of the adsorbent is USD 0.12628 per kg, the lowest among all the adsorbents known thus far. The present study describes a novel, ultra-low cost, efficient, eco-friendly, desulfurization process that implements a chemical-free, non-activated adsorbent, achieves synergy, and offers multi-dimensional benefits to the environmental development. To our knowledge, this is the first study to characterize desulfurization of sour crude oil using an invasive weed.

Physical and Financial Hedging of Natural Gas

The prices of natural gas and liquefied natural gas (LNG) has increased since the COVID‐19 lockdowns began in early 2020. Global natural gas prices are now relatively high ranging between $5.60 per million British Thermal Units (MMBtu) in the US and $33/MMBtu in Europe and Asia, compared to $3.00/MMBtu since just before COVID lockdowns.

Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on oil consumption in the United States: A new estimation approach

The COVID-19 pandemic broke the balance of oil supply and demand. Meeting these oil market challenges induced by the pandemic required a more accurate assessment of the impact of the pandemic on oil consumption. The existing measurement of the impact of the pandemic on oil consumption was based on year-over-year calculation. In this work, a new measurement approach based on a comparison of simulated and actual oil consumption was proposed. In this proposed measurement model, the actual oil consumption was from the official statistics, whereas the simulated oil demand came from business-as-usual (without pandemic) scenario simulation. In order to reduce the simulation error, three hybrid simulation approaches were developed by combining the simulation technique and machine learning technique. The mean relative errors of the proposed simulation approaches were between 1.08% and 2.51%, within the high precision level. An empirical research on the US oil consumption was conducted by running the proposed measurement model. Through analyzing the difference between the simulated and real US oil consumption, we found the impact of the epidemic on U.S. oil consumption was obvious in April–May 2020 and January–February 2021. At its worst, the oil decline in the United States reached 973 trillion British thermal units, compared to the state without the epidemic. During the entire survey period (January 2020–March 2021), the US oil consumption under the epidemic was about 18.14% lower than that under the normal epidemic-free situation, which was 5% higher than the 13% inter-annual decline rate reported. This work contributed to understand the impact of the pandemic on oil consumption more comprehensively, and also provided a new approach for analyzing the impact of the pandemic on energy consumption.

Study on Boil-off Gas (BOG) Minimization and Recovery Strategies from Actual Baseload LNG Export Terminal: Towards Sustainable LNG Chains

Boil-off Gas (BOG) generated at the liquefied natural gas (LNG) export terminal causes negative economic and environmental impacts. Thus, the objective of this study is to develop and evaluate various handling schemes to minimize and/or recover the generated BOG from an actual baseload LNG export terminal with a capacity of 554 million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD) of natural gas feed. The following three main scenarios were assessed: JBOG re-liquefaction, LNG sub-cooling, and lean fuel gas (LFG) reflux. For the LNG subcooling, two sub-cases were considered; standalone subcooling before LNG storage and subcooling in the prevailing liquefaction cycle. Steady-state models for these scenarios were simulated using Aspen Plus® based on a shortcut approach to quickly evaluate the proposed scenarios and determine the promising options that should be considered for further rigorous analysis. Results indicated that the flow of attainable excess LNG is 0.07, 0.03, and 0.022 million metric tons per annum (MTA) for the standalone LNG sub-cooling, LNG sub-cooling in the main cryogenic heat exchanger (MCHE), and both LFG-refluxing and jetty boil-off gas (JBOG) liquefaction, respectively. This in turn results in a profit of 24.58, 12.24, 8.14, and 7.63 million $/year for the LNG price of 7$ per Metric Million British Thermal Unit (MMBtu) of LNG.

Technology Focus: Natural Gas Processing and Handling (April 2021)

In 2020, the spot prices of natural gas hit a record low in the US, reaching the lowest annual average price in more than a decade. Based on US Energy Information Administration (EIA) data, the average annual spot price reported in 2020 was $2.05 per million British thermal units (MMBtu). In the first few months of the year, reports from the EIA showed that natural gas prices started declining amid mild winter temperatures that resulted in a decline in the demand for natural gas for space heating. In March 2020, following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the already declining natural gas prices plummeted further. This decline continued through the first half of the year. The EIA reported the average monthly Henry Hub spot price in the first 6 months at $1.81/MMBtu. June saw the lowest monthly natural gas price in decades (Henry Hub price aver-aged $1.66/MMBtu). Natural gas prices recovered in the second half of the year as natural gas production decreased and global exports of liquefied natural gas increased. Natural gas consumption in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors declined in 2020, according to the EIA. Milder winter temperatures were a major contributor in the first quarter of the year, but overall declining consumption was attributed to reduced economic activities as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. On the other hand, the consumption of natural gas for electric power generation registered an overall increase of 2% more than the 2019 average. According to the EIA, citing S&P Global Platts, this increase was attributed to power producers switching to cheaper natural gas from coal to meet the increased demand for electric power for cooling as summer temperatures increased. The EIA in its Annual Energy Outlook 2021 projects that the industrial and electric power sectors and net exports will drive the growth in US energy consumption between 2020 and 2050. Natural gas consumption in other sectors is expected to increase steadily or remain flat. The EIA forecasts that natural gas production will increase as consumption increases and prices will stay low relative to past prices. The EIA expects continued growth in natural gas exports as natural gas production surpasses natural gas consumption. Globally, the International Energy Agency forecasts a recovery in global demand for natural gas in 2021 led by growth in the Asia Pacific region as emerging markets recover. The US will continue to play a significant role as one of the largest producers and contributors to natural gas supply growth. Recommended additional reading at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org. SPE 200300 - Overcoming Challenges in the Development of Underground Gas Storage by Ammar Alali, Saudi Aramco, et al. OTC 30602 - Offshore LNG and Gas Monetization by Femi Adeoye Alabi, Total SPE 200147 - Development of the Underground Gas Storage and Construction of the Salt Cavern Storage in China by Peng Chen, CNPC, et al.

Biochar production, activation and adsorptive applications: a review

Rising global population and urbanization are major causes of waste generation, energy demand and carbon emissions. The atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased of 44% from 284 ppm in 1850 to 409 ppm in 2018. In 2017, the world energy consumption was 582 quadrillion British thermal units (qBtu), including 495 qBtu of fossil fuels and 87 qBtu of renewable and nuclear energy sources. Therefore, there is a need for new energies and methods of carbon sequestration, for instance by recycling biomass into biochar. Here, we review the thermochemical valorization of waste biomass by pyrolysis, gasification, torrefaction and carbonization to produce biochar with promising and environmental applications. We detail parameters that control biochar yields, quality and composition. Physical and chemical routes of biochar activation are also described. We focus on the utilization of biochar as soil amendment and for the adsorption of pollutants from wastewater. We conclude by a discussion on the techno-economic and lifecycle assessment of biochar production technologies.

A Time-Series Rank Ordering Control System Data-Driven Fault Detection Approach for HVAC Systems in Buildings

Abstract About 41% of total energy consumption in the United States of year 2014 is used for heating and air conditioning, which is about 40 quadrillion (40 × 1015) British thermal units (BTUs). Despite the fact that people have been working on fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for a long time, very few publications have focused on scalability and low cost. To address this challenge, we will propose an approach that focuses on control system data. Several machine learning algorithms are introduced for data exploration (e.g., DBSCAN, k-means) and analysis, rank-ordered weather data are used to define comparable days, a control system data focused model free approach is presented as well, and finally, fault detection is carried out by implementing anomaly algorithms (local outlier factor and isolation forest). Hidden faults were detected with a detection rate up to 90%+. The threshold parameter can be determined by selecting an acceptable true positive and false positive rate pair, which can be visualized using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and is demonstrated in this article. A simulation model that is used to generate about 250 GB of data is used to evaluate the performance of various algorithms.

Analysis of Energy Savings and CO2 Emission Reduction Contribution for Industrial Facilities in USA

Abstract Energy audits can identify energy consumptions, energy costs of the facility and evolve to develop measures to maximize efficiency, optimize supply energy, and eliminate waste. This paper investigates the potential energy savings at 20 different industrial sectors with 152 assessments for various facilities in Wisconsin, USA. On average, eight energy recommendations were suggested and applied in each facility. This paper provides a detailed guideline for each industry in terms of eight different energy categories: heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, heat recovery systems, electrical demand management, and utility bills, motors, compressors, waste management, and productivity enhancement, lighting, besides building envelope. In total, the energy savings were as follows: 98 million kWh in the shape of electricity, 561 billion British thermal units (BTUs) gas savings, 44 million gallons water savings, and 2-million-pound solid waste savings. Based on these savings, a 100-thousand-ton reduction in carbon dioxide emissions was obtained.

A Conversation

A Conversation

Technology Focus: Natural Gas Processing and Handling (April 2020)

Technology Focus In 2019, the US experienced the lowest natural gas prices since 2016. This was despite natural gas consumption increasing in the residential and commercial sector by 2% (between October and December) according to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA). In July and August, the electric generation sector also experienced an increase in natural gas consumption because of above-average humidity levels in the Midwest and Northeast. Natural gas inventories at the end of March recorded the lowest levels since 2014 during withdrawal season, whereas the injection season recorded the second-highest levels from sustained growth in natural gas production. This trend of low gas prices was because of natural gas production growth, as prices continued to decline through the rest of 2019. The EIA forecasts an increase in natural gas consumption by 1.4 Bcf/D (1.7%) in 2020. The average US natural gas price is projected to fall by 9% to $2.33/million British thermal units (MMBtu) in 2020. The EIA said it expects continued growth in natural gas production in 2020 in response to improved drilling, increased associated gas production, and increased Appalachian and Permian pipeline take-away capacity. As of 3 February, Henry Hub spot price closed at $1.82/MMBtu, $0.87 lower than the same time last year. Weather temperatures were warmer than expected, except in the Northeast and Midwest where it was colder than expected, hence affecting winter demand. Globally, the Paris-based International Energy Agency’s 5-year forecast shows natural gas demand driven by Asia-Pacific growth, with the region accounting for approximately 60% of the total gas consumption forecasted increase through 2024. China is expected to be at the forefront of this demand growth because it is expected to constitute approximately 40% of the total gas demand increase through 2024. The global liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) market has continued to grow reasonably in the past decade, and the US, as a result of its strong domestic LPG production, has ascended in recent years as the largest LPG producer and exporter in the world. The Asia-Pacific region, because of its growing population, constitutes the highest market share of the global LPG consumption. The global LPG market trend is predominantly supply-driven by natural gas and crude oil but not so much from refining. According to IHS Markit, LPG demand in Asia-Pacific grew approximately 3.5% in 2018 and has continued to maintain its steady growth in 2019. Global supplies of LPG are expected to rise approximately 5% to 325 million tonnes in 2020. By region, approximately 28% of the global supplies will be from the US and approximately 20% from the Middle East. Asia-Pacific will continue to be the main driver for LPG demand growth, accounting for approximately 45% (4.6 million B/D) of the global demand. The prominent increase in US LPG exports has resulted in significant changes in the LPG global trade flow patterns in recent years, demonstrating a shift from a dependency on exports from the Middle East. More can be learned by attending the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition in Denver on 5–7 October and the SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition in Perth, Australia, on 8–11 September. Recommended additional reading at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org. SPE 195759 Solutions for Seal Gas Leakage Recovery in Methane Compression: Integration Into Processing Lines or Gas Valorization Systems by Filippo Conforti, Baker Hughes, et al. SPE 197582 Running Sour Hydrocarbon Assets: Eni’s Story of Experience by Luciano Scataglini, Eni, et al. SPE 195555 Experimental Investigation of Integrity Issues of Underground Gas Storage Containing Hydrogen by Erik Clemens Boersheim, Clausthal University of Technology, et al.

Observations of Methane Emissions from Natural Gas-Fired Power Plants.

Current research efforts on the atmospheric impacts of natural gas (NG) have focused heavily on the production, storage/transmission, and processing sectors, with less attention paid to the distribution and end use sectors. This work discusses 23 flights at 14 natural gas-fired power plants (NGPPs) using an aircraft-based mass balance technique and methane/carbon dioxide enhancement ratios (ΔCH4/ΔCO2) measured from stack plumes to quantify the unburned fuel. By comparing the ΔCH4/ΔCO2 ratio measured in stack plumes to that measured downwind, we determined that, within uncertainty of the measurement, all observed CH4 emissions were stack-based, that is, uncombusted NG from the stack rather than fugitive sources. Measured CH4 emission rates (ER) ranged from 8 (±5) to 135 (±27) kg CH4/h (±1σ), with the fractional CH4 throughput lost (loss rate) ranging from -0.039% (±0.076%) to 0.204% (±0.054%). We attribute negative values to partial combustion of ambient CH4 in the power plant. The average calculated emission factor (EF) of 5.4 (+10/-5.4) g CH4/million British thermal units (MMBTU) is within uncertainty of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) EFs. However, one facility measured during startup exhibited substantially larger stack emissions with an EF of 440 (+660/-440) g CH4/MMBTU and a loss rate of 2.5% (+3.8/-2.5%).

Assessment of CO2 Emission and Energy Reduction on Solid Waste in Jeram Landfill Using Warm Analysis

Today, the increasing of solid waste generation became the major issue in Malaysia due to high population growth. The greenhouse emission and high energy consumption resulted from improper management of solid waste have caused a significant effect on the inhabitants and the environment. Hence, it is necessary to develop an integrated solid waste management plan to combat this problem. The challenges are to educate the communities in managing their own waste in a good manner. Recycling awareness among society should also be emphasized to ensure that waste generated can be properly managed. This paper focused on the greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and energy consumption of municipal solid waste management. The aim of this research is to estimate the income generated from recycling activities from the municipal authority in Shah Alam and Klang district in Selangor. The analysis was done using waste reduction model (WARM) created by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), United States. The results indicated that the GHG emission that can be reduced by the Klang authority was 3,024.20 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (MTCO2E) compared to 2,577.80 MTCO2E for Shah Alam authority. The same result has been obtained for the energy emission which indicated the highest saving was 824.90 metric tons of coal equivalents (MTCE) by the Klang authority. However, the Shah Alam authority can only save the amount of 702.80 MTCE. The total incremental of energy used generated by WARM showed that Klang authority can save 23,290.20 million British thermal unit (MBTU) compared to Shah Alam authority of 19,862.80 MBTU. The percentage difference between the Klang authority and the Shah Alam authority in the GHG and energy emission reduction was approximately 14.80%. The total income from recyclable materials for Klang and Shah Alam authority was obtained as RM 918, 638.16. The estimation of GHG emission from both Klang and Shah Alam authority was depending on the solid waste generated and disposal method. In terms of GHG emission, waste separation includes recycling activities could reduce the GHG emission, less air pollution and more environmentally friendly.