British Rule Research Articles

Hansen’s discovery of the Leprosy Bacillus: controversy over preventive measures in 19th Century British Colonial India

Hansen’s discovery of the Leprosy Bacillus: controversy over preventive measures in 19th Century British Colonial India

PROCEDURE FOR ACQUISITION OF LAND IN INDIA

The land is so essential to the existence of all human beings, that every system of law recognizes and protects a formidable list of rights connected with it. For every country, the land is important and people use the land as a source for food, a place to live, a place to work, etc. India is an agrarian country, wherein land has always been an important source of income and authority but ownership rights of land have remained very complex and ambiguous. During the ancient and medieval periods, we find individual, community and State ownership of land. However, during British rule, this was changed.

BORDERLANDS: STOCK PHOTOGRAPHY AND PRESS DEPICTIONS OF THE BORDER BETWEEN THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND AND THE STATE OF NORTHERN IRELAND

This article explores photographic representations of the border between the Republic of Ireland and the state of Northern Ireland. This contentious division of the island occurred in 1921 following a War of Independence. It left six of the island’s thirty-two counties under British rule and its creation precipitated a Civil War (1922-1923). Photography has been employed to either undermine or solidify the border’s existence. At various times its visibility was heightened or negated reflecting the political climate. The article will consider the border imagery reproduced in popular magazines such as LIFE and also those created by stock photo-agencies. Mainly consumed by non-Irish audiences, these representations were initially quaint, however, as political and civil unrest grew, and British troops occupied and patrolled the border area, the depictions became more sinister. Border checkpoints and a ‘wild’ countryside teeming with paramilitaries became visual shorthand for this ‘problematic’ space. Recent Fine Art representations of the border in the post-Brexit era will also be considered.

Agrarian transformations in British India: A case study of colonial Punjab

ABSTRACT The agrarian transformation in Punjab under British rule had significant implications for understanding the fundamental principles behind these agricultural developments. The British government aimed to transform agricultural practices in Punjab for strategic, military, geostrategic, and geopolitical reasons. The integration of railways, highways, telecommunications, farming techniques, and canal settlements transformed the arid terrain into a prosperous region in British India. However, the transformation significantly impacted the local residents by advancing the British government's agenda. Against this background, the major focus of this paper is to analyze the agricultural transformation during British rule regarding the complex interactions between social, cultural, and political factors that shaped the region's history.

Revisiting Punjab’s Transformative Journey, 1947-1966: An Appraisal

"Punjab, often referred to as the 'Land of five rivers,' has been a significant player in shaping India's historical narrative, leaving an enduring mark on its trajectory. This imprint stems from the courageous and patriotic endeavours of the people of Punjab, who have etched out a distinctive place for themselves. A comprehensive study of its people becomes imperative to comprehend the nuanced dynamics of Punjab's history. This involves delving into their historical, cultural, and religious roots and understanding their political legacy. The year 1947 marked India's liberation from British rule, coinciding with a partition based on the two-nation theory. Punjab bore a heavy toll during this partition, experiencing substantial human and territorial losses. The partition's catastrophic aftermath overshadowed the jubilation of independence for Punjab. Post-partition, Punjab portrayed a sombre and bleak landscape, with the migration of refugees significantly altering the communal composition of the region. This migration upheaved the administrative, economic, and political structures, introducing many complex challenges. The division of Punjab along communal lines generated a palpable sense of indignation and frustration among the Sikh community. The expectations of establishing a Sikh State in independent India, fervently supported by Sikh, Congress, and Hindu leaders, remained unfulfilled. Perceiving an unequal distribution of territory between Hindus and Muslims, the Sikhs advocated for a Punjabi Suba. In their pursuit of this objective, the Akali Dal employed diverse strategies. This culminated in the reorganisation of Punjab on March 21, 1966, leading to its further trifurcation."

Variation in body size and weight status among Hindu and Muslim Indian males born in the 1890s through the 1950s

Hindus and Muslims represent the two largest religions in India, and also differ in nutritional status, health-related habits and standard of living associated with economic disparities. In this context, the present study considered estimated secular changes in body size, proportions, and weight status among Hindu and Muslim Indian men. The data are from anthropological surveys in the 1970s which included measurements of height, weight and sitting height of 43,950 males 18–84 years (birth years 1891–1957). Leg length was estimated; the BMI and sitting height/height ratio were calculated. Heights of men 35 + years were adjusted for estimated height loss with age. Weight status was also classified relative to WHO criteria for the BMI. Anthropometric characteristics of the two groups were compared with MANCOVA with age and geographic region as covariates. Linear regression of height on year of birth was also used to estimate secular change in each group. Heights, weights, and BMIs tended to be, on average, greater among Muslim than Hindu men at most ages, while distributions by weight status between groups were negligible. Sitting height was greater among Muslim men but estimated leg length did not differ between groups; the sitting height/height ratio thus suggested proportionally shorter legs among Muslim men. Results of the regression analyses indicated negligible differences in secular change between groups across the total span of birth years but indicated a decline in adjusted heights of men in both groups born between 1891 through 1930s and little secular change among those born in the 1930s through 1957. The variation in heights, weights and BMIs between Muslim and Hindu men at most ages suggested variation in socio-economic status and dietary habits between the groups, whereas the negligible estimated secular changes in height between groups likely reflected economic, social, and nutritional conditions during the interval of British rule and the transition to independence.

(Re)negotiating State Authority: How Hinterland Protests against Global Capital Impact the Mediating Role of Traditional Rulers in Postcolonial Sierra Leone

AbstractSesay draws from three hinterland protests against multinational corporations in the mining and agricultural sectors to examine how global capital influences central/local politics in postcolonial Sierra Leone. Focusing specifically on the mediating role of traditional rulers—a strong legacy of British colonial indirect rule—Sesay argues that hinterland protests not only enable the relative autonomy of rural citizens to (re)negotiate with the state outside existing political arrangements but also challenge the broker authority of these rulers in center/peripheral relations. While some protests form new alignment of interest with traditional rulers, others allow rural citizens to bypass their chiefs to summon the attention of central authorities. In either of these processes, the local constituents question the position of chiefs in the indirect governance system and shape the governing strategies adopted by the central government to rule over the hinterland.

الإحتلال البريطاني للعراق دراسة في تطوره السياسي


 يتناول هذا البحث مرحلة مهمة من تاريخ العراق([i]) الحديث، ألا وهي مرحلة الاحتلال البريطاني للعراق منذ 1917م، عندما دخل البريطانيون بغداد بقيادة الجنرال ستانلي مود وأعلنوا احتلالهم للعراق. ويلاحظ ان تاريخ العراق المعاصر يتوافق مع هذا الحدث المؤثر. لذلك فأن فهم هذا الاحتلال ودوافعه وموقف الشعب العراقي منه مهم جداً لفهم التاريخ العراقي في مراحله اللاحقة. ويبين كذلك فهم الآخرين للعراق وشعبه وكيفية تعاملهم معه. وبعد مرور قرن من الزمن على هذا الحدث فأن اعادة دراسته له أهمية خاصة وبصورة عامة وان كان تحدي الاحتلال كبيراً بالنسبة للعراقيين فان الاستجابة لهذا التحدي كان عظيماً حيث أثبت بأنه لايمكن حكم العراقيين بصورة مباشرة. إن البحث الذي قمت بكتابته وبتوفيق من الله عز وجل يبدأ قبل فترة الاحتلال المباشر فقد تناولت في بدايته وقوع العراق في نفوذ الدولة العثمانية وأوضاعه تحت سيطرة العثمانيين وأهمية العراق الستراتيجية وكذلك المعاهدات التي جرت بين الحكومتين العراقية والبريطانية، وأثر ذلك على كردستان الحلم ويختتم البحث بدور المقاومة وإنهاء الاحتلال البريطاني في ثورة العشرين التي كان للكرد نصيب فيها ضمن حركة التحرر الكردية ولا أجزم بأن البحث قد نال مرحلة الكمال، لأن الكمال لله عز وجل وحده ولكن أدعوا أن يكون قد نال رضا الله ومن يقرأه، والله الموفق.
 
 ([i]) هناك آراء كثيرة حول اصل ومعنى العراق: ينظر: سالم الآلوسي، اسماء العراق وبغداد، بيروت، الوراق للنشر، 2013، ص ص9-174.

The Death of Queen Elizabeth, the Death of the British Empire

The life of Elizabeth Windsor famously kmown by her title Queen Elizabeth the second, is one of mixed realites she is the longest reigning British Monarch in history having set on the throne for 70 years. The reign of Elizabeth was born from the greatest times of the British Empire with many colonies and a great reputation of the empire after the defeat of the Germans in World war 2. Queen Elizabeth has been credited in overseeing the end of colonisation from the British empire by many African states who were under British colonial rule. She facilitated for negotiations in some cases between liberation war movements and the colonial governments on peaceful ways of transfering power. Her Queen`s government even went on to sanction Ian Smith regime in Rhodesia when it declared independence from Britain, the sanctions were as a result that her majesty`s government would only accept independence if it was given to the majority black africans of Rhodesia. The British economy under her rule had prospered beyond unimaginable dought with the British pound being the most powerful currency, the attractiveness of the pound attracted great minds from across the globe which helped improve the British economy and advanced its technological base. The common wealth of nations an organisation the Queen championed has had success in cooperation between Britain its former colonies and other countries that were not British colonies have since joined the organisation because of its successes. This paper seeks to show how the British economy, social base and its political prowess has suffered from the days that the Queen became sick to her subsequent death and the aftermath. Policies like the Brexit that was carried out during her old age and its impact of Britain will be visited upon in this article, the Irish referendum, the removal of the British Mornach as heard of state by carribean nations that belonged to the British realm. The paper seeks to show how Elizabeth Windsor was the glue that bonded British modern society and the survival of the British monarch without her is under threat.In her life Queen Elizabeth worked with 15 British Prime Ministers from diverse parties sharing diferent ideologies this showed her to be a democratic monarch. This paper will expand on the front of the death of monarchs and empires in the modern era and Elizabeth Winsdor being the last great monarch.

Subjugated to Free Independent States of America, Boston Tea Party by Sons of Liberty and Declaration of Independence

This article explores how Native Americans and Africans have historically been treated by Europeans, with a particular emphasis on how both groups have been portrayed as barbaric and primitive in a variety of media, including literature, minstrel shows, newspapers, and advertisements. We'll talk about Native Americans' difficulties and how they gained their independence in this section. European colonization of North America resulted in the displacement of these tribes, who were then forced into reservations and subjected to assimilation strategies that were often violent and betrayed treaties. European assimilation efforts aimed to erase Native American culture, history, and identity through the establishment of boarding schools that forced Native American children to adopt European habits, attire, and language. The method was intended to "kill the Indian, save the man," as institutions such as the Carlisle Indian School illustrated. Despite the hardships and cultural loss inflicted on Native Americans, their experience in boarding schools was critical in developing future Native American leaders and building a sense of pan-Indian identity, thereby refuting the notion of them as a dying race. The article also delves into the influence of British colonial rule on Native Americans, as well as the imposition of taxes without representation, which sparked riots such as the Boston Tea Party. The Continental Congress and the following Declaration of Independence were watershed points in the American Revolution. Furthermore, the Coercive Acts meant to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, stoked colonial discontent and aided in the commencement of the American Revolutionary War. The article finishes by underlining the significance of these historical events in establishing the identity of the United States and the ongoing struggle for Native Americans' rights and acknowledgment. This in-depth examination of historical events and their interconnectivity sheds light on the complicated and often brutal interactions between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans, which ultimately influenced the establishment of the United States and its values (Volo, 2003).

Tiv entrepreneurs in road transport business: engaging the patterns and trends, 1960’s-2015

ABSTRACT The paper examines the evolution and development of the road transport business in Tivland from the 1960s to 2015. Tivland is located in Benue State, central-Nigeria. The contention is that the advent of British colonial rule led to the construction and expansion of footpaths into motorable roads in Tivland. Tiv entrepreneurs took this advantage by engaging in the transport business. Therefore, transport entrepreneurship was a watershed in the economic development of Tivland. The paper made use of both primary and secondary data, and its approach is descriptive, narrative, and analytic. The paper finds out that the road transport business has contributed to the socio-economic development of Tivland. However, the transport business among the Tiv was beleaguered with some daunting challenges: bad roads, lack of finance, lack of loan facility, mismanagement, stiff competition from outsiders, lack of insurance cover, and extortion of drivers by security personnel. As a way out of these challenges, the study suggests that roads should be repaired and new ones open up to reach areas of production in Tivland. There is also a need to make loan facilities available to aspiring Tiv entrepreneurs to support their businesses.

What happened to the workshop of West Africa? Resilience and decline of handicraft textiles in colonial northern Nigeria, 1911–52

AbstractThe Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria was the workshop of West Africa in the pre‐colonial nineteenth century, producing famous blue‐black cloth that reached many markets south of the Sahara as well as across it. Under British colonial rule this large handicraft textile industry was faced with the winds of foreign competition. We rely on a newly digitized set of colonial district reports to measure the impact of trade on northern Nigerian textile manufacturing and find that (contrary to British expectations) areas closer to railway stations were less likely to experience industrial decline. We argue that the resilience of local textiles relied on the low opportunity cost of dry‐season labour. Analysing a piece of tax microdata, we show that a low opportunity cost of labour outside of the rainy season was associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in textile by‐employment. Seasonal changes in relative factor prices were a trap as well as a refuge. Part‐time employment limited specialization and technological innovation, and can help to explain why northern Nigerian textiles eventually declined. Thus, beyond our particular case study, these results contribute to our understanding of the role of seasonality in determining the structure and pace of development of tropical economies.

Unsettled Responsibilities: Antiquity, Resistance, and Rubble in Mandate Palestine

ABSTRACT The 1927 Jericho earthquake caused widespread damage across Palestine and Transjordan, both ruled at the time by Britain. The worst-hit city was Nablus, where the Old City’s historic buildings became a field for conflict. Drawing on G. Gordillo’s differentiation between ruins and rubble and his analysis of colonial anxiety, power, and oppression, this article considers local and colonial reactions and competition over the material heritage of Nablus, particularly in the city’s Samaritan Quarter and the Crusader wall of the Great Mosque. Entangled in these are definitions of antiquity and ideas of archaeological value for the Ottoman and British rulers of Palestine. Decisions made and contested in Nablus and Jerusalem highlight the fine line between ruin and rubble, the mechanisms by which the mandatory administration sought to tame the built environment and indigenous communities of Nablus, and the way their confrontations reverberated in the city’s rebellious history and insurrectionary future.

Revisiting Punjab’s Transformative Journey: 1947 to 1966

Punjab, the “Land of five rivers”, has played a major role in the history of India and had left a deep imprint on the course of Indian History. This imprint on Indian History is due to the people of Punjab, who through their courage and patriotism have carved out an important place for themselves. To understand the nature and dynamics of Punjab history in its true perspective, it is important to study the people of Punjab; their historical, cultural and religious background and their political heritage. In 1947, India got Independence from the British rule and at the same time it was partitioned on the on the basis of two nation theory. In this partition Punjab had to pay a heavy price both in term of human and territorial loss. The joy and achievement of independence for Punjab was marred by the holocaust of partition. After partition Punjab presented a very gloomy and downright dismal picture. Migration of refugees significantly altered the communal composition of Indian Punjab. It also shook the administrative, economic and political machinery of the province to its foundation and brought in its wake a host complicated problems. The division of Punjab on communal lines spread a sense of indignation and frustration among the Sikhs because the hopes of creating a Sikh State in Independent India rose by the Sikh leaders and supported by the congress and Hindu leaders had not been fulfilled. The Sikhs felt that they had been given a raw deal in the distribution of territory between the Hindus and the Muslims giving the expression to this feeling hence the demand for a Punjabi Suba was made and in its struggle for the achievement of Punjabi Suba, the Akali Dal employed a variety of strategies, due to which on 21st March 1966 reorganization of the Punjab took place and Punjab was further trifurcated.

Populism reaches new heights in Narendra Modi’s India

India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who has been in power for ten years, is seeking a third term in office. His goal is to restore the country to the preeminent position it supposedly lost due to previous Muslim and British rulers. He is kicking off the 2024 election year with the inauguration of the Ayodhya temple intended to liberate Hindus from the alleged enslavement they endured for 1,200 years. His supremacist ideology aims to transform the Hindu majority into an electoral majority. By intertwining politics and religion, it turns Muslims and Christians into aliens worthy only of the status of second-class citizens.

The Calcutta Marwaris and the Swadeshi Movement: In the Context of Boycott and Swadeshi Politics (1905-1907)

At the dawn of the 20th century, an organized struggle against the partition of Bengal significantly influenced the trajectory of Indian politics. The Swadeshi movement engendered political extremism within the realm of Indian nationalism, leading a contingent of educated Bengalis to take up arms against British rule. In these circumstances, Bengali leaders adopted the policies of 'Boycott' and 'Swadeshi' to undermine British economic interests in Bengal. This paper seeks to explore the role played by the Marwari community of Calcutta in the anti-partition movement of 1905. During that era, the Marwaris were integral to the European trading system. They procured raw materials from various parts of the country for export and served as distributors of foreign products in the local market. Marwari traders were aligned with the British in the realm of commerce. Given this context, it is natural to question how the Marwari traders of Calcutta reacted to the boycott of foreign goods. What if we were to uncover, albeit sparingly, instances of Marwaris supporting the anti-partition boycott movement in history? This paper aims to address the following questions to comprehend the involvement of Calcutta's Marwaris in the 1905 Swadeshi Movement. Firstly, to what extent did the policy of boycotting foreign goods succeed within the Swadeshi movement? Secondly, what was the impact of the 'Boycott' and 'Swadeshi' policies on the Calcutta Marwaris? And thirdly, did the Calcutta Marwaris indeed participate in the Swadeshi Movement, and if so, what motivated their involvement? Most prevailing studies have dismissed the participation of the Marwari Community of Calcutta in the Swadeshi movement. This paper aims to uncover the answers to these questions and shed light on the extent of the Marwari community of Calcutta's involvement in the Swadeshi movement.

Anthropological Developmentalism: Furer-Haimendorf and the Making of Social Policy in Hyderabad State 1

Christoph von Furer-Haimendorf has left a formidable legacy on the social policy of Hyderabad state, which was ruled by an Indian ruler during British colonial rule. As a field anthropologist, administrator and professor at Osmania University, Haimendorf played an important role in designing Adivasi development policies that were mainly rooted in a paternalistic and evolutionistic approach—what I call anthropological developmentalism—which was designed to overturn the political aspirations of the Adivasi communities. This approach neither empowered the Adivasis nor protected them from outsiders. Yet, Haimendorf and his legacy have been celebrated by the Adivasis in particular, and the state in general. This article explores this paradox by examining the intellectual and contextual role of Haimendorf’s anthropological ideas and their application to Hyderabad state.

The Concept and Practice of Democracy in Zimbabwe: A Call for Consensual Democracy

With the coming of independence, a new form of governance: majoritarian democracy was adopted in Zimbabwe just as it was suggested as the best in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. The British rule that influenced the adoption of majoritarian democracy in Zimbabwe argued that it enables transparency and fosters checks and balances on corruption. We argue that, in a democratic system, functioning from a majoritarian perspective, there ought to be space of enjoying freedoms and rights. There ought to be sufficient representation and contribution of citizens in democratic procedures and organisations. For many, a good democratic system should speak to their bread and butter issues: their socio-economic well-being. However, these have not been enjoyed by the masses in Zimbabwe. The political atmosphere is a sad one; politics is practised for the sake of gaining power and controlboth in the ruling and opposition parties, something that is immanent in multiparty under majoritarian democracy. This study seeks to outline these ills and address them with a suggestion of embracing consensual democracy as it was conceptualised by Kwasi Wiredu. The central argument is that democratisation has failed due to a well curated system that seem to prioritise rivalry in politics as opposed to nation building. The study suggests that consensual democracy can address persistent political ills in contemporary Zimbabwe and build a unified and prosperous nation. The essential tenets that can enable this emanate from a historical record of political thought in indigenous Zimbabwe, characterised by the conceptualisation of rational deliberation in decision-making and inclusiveness: a consensual system in politics.

Islamic modernism in India in the second half of the 19th century and Sayit Ahmed Khan

In the 19th century, when the industrial revolution was taking place in Europe, and the major powers were colonizing the world continent, there were religious changes in the Indian subcontinent. These processes are closely related to the above two factors. Because in 1857, India officially came under British rule. During this period, the Muslims, who were a minority in the Indian subcontinent, were under the pressure of the Christianization of the British authorities on the one hand, and the Indian missionaries on the other hand. Muslims lost their political power in the Indian country, which they had ruled for centuries, and the Islamic education system collapsed. Indian Muslims sought a way out of this difficult situation from religious traditionalism, religious fundamentalism, and also religious modernism. It is the latter that interests us in this article. Modernists sought to reform religious dogmas on the basis of rationality and reason. They believed that the way out of the deadlock was to return to the basic, that is, to the Qur'an. Modernists divided the Qur'anic rulings into two types: permanent, which must be fulfilled, and transitory, which is not considered mandatory. Indian modernists criticized medieval Muslim scholars and encouraged the Muslim community to benefit from Western science and technology. And in political matters, they often supported the British government or took a passive position. The article comprehensively covers the innovative ideas of 19th-century Indian modernists on religion, Islamic law, and Islamic history, including the views of Sayyid Ahmed Khan, considered the leader of Islamic modernists in India. We will also focus on the critical views of groups such as Deobandism and Hadithism, which were against the modernist direction.

Impact of RERA, 2016 on The Growth of Real Estate in India

Investing in real estate in India is complex, involving substantial savings, extensive research, and numerous legalities. The Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act of 2016 (RERA) has significantly improved the sector by promoting transparency, accountability, and protecting homebuyers. Historically, India's real estate evolved from traditional systems to a regulated market under British rule, with RERA further transforming the landscape, especially in regions like Gurugram. RERA mandates project registration, accurate advertising, standardized carpet area definitions, timely project completion, and efficient dispute resolution. These measures ensure buyers have reliable information and protections, making the market more trustworthy. The COVID-19 pandemic heavily impacted the sector, causing project delays and financial difficulties. Despite these challenges, the residential sector rebounded post-pandemic due to increased demand and supportive government policies. Real estate is vital to India's economy, contributing significantly to GDP and employment. It is the second-largest employment generator after agriculture, providing around 5.5 crore jobs. The sector drives urbanization and infrastructure development, supports related industries, and offers significant investment opportunities, enhancing economic stability and growth. Overall, the survey paints a positive picture of RERA’s impact on the real estate sector, particularly in terms of increasing investor confidence and enhancing transparency and accountability. However, it also underscores the need for continuous improvements in awareness, enforcement, and procedural efficiency to fully realize the potential of RERA. By addressing these challenges and implementing the suggested improvements, RERA can further strengthen its role in transforming the Indian real estate landscape and ensuring a more secure and transparent environment for both residential and commercial real estate investments.