British Empire Research Articles

Death of a Prime Minister: The Assassination of Boutros Ghali and Mediating Sectarianism in Egypt, 1906–1911

ABSTRACT When Egypt’s first Coptic Christian prime minister, Boutros Ghali, was assassinated by a Muslim affiliate of the Nationalist Party (al-Ḥizb al-Waṭanī) in 1910, it triggered a nationwide debate over more than just the spectre of political violence. The assassination, the first of a prominent politician in twentieth-century Egypt, exposed latent sectarian tensions that consumed public discourse and private speculation through the press, conferences, and demonstrations. While Ghali’s killing has been analysed more commonly in reference to its implications for the British occupation or the Egyptian nationalist movement, it has yet to receive equal attention for its role in generating discourses about sectarianism in Egypt. This article argues that the death of the prime minister highlighted national anxieties about inter-religious relations during a period of contestation over the parameters of Egyptian identity and belonging. Ghali’s death, the politics of his commemoration, and a recourse to charitable citizenship are crucial nodes for understanding the historical development of sectarianism in twentieth-century Egypt.

Between Nationalism and Internationalism: Robert Weltsch and the Colonial Dilemma in World War II Palestine

Abstract: This article proposes that the marginality of World War II in the historiography of Zionism and Israel is based on a historical perspective that shaped contemporaries' evaluation of reality and framed postwar historiography. Through the wartime writings of Robert Weltsch, I argue that this historiographic absence draws on a dilemma: Should Britain's colonized populations continue their fight for independence from British rule during the war or support the empire in the world conflict against the Axis? The dilemma expressed a tension between the colonial aspects of the Yishuv and its reliance on the British Empire, on the one hand, and its anticolonial struggle for independence from the British, on the other. This article examines the Yishuv's wartime dilemma using the distinction Weltsch made between a narrow perspective, which he associated with World War I's legacy of self-determination, and a broad international view.

John Norton Reconsidered: Influence, Blood, and Belonging in the British Empire and Haudenosaunee Confederacy, 1786–1823

John Norton Reconsidered: Influence, Blood, and Belonging in the British Empire and Haudenosaunee Confederacy, 1786–1823

The Power and Performativity of Naming

In 1906, the Mikado pheasant, an endemic bird of Taiwan, was discovered as a new species by a British collector. As the creation of this new species was based solely on the examination of tail feathers, it generated excitement among ornithologists and aviculturists, sparking a series of expeditions to collect complete specimens. By following the trajectory of these endeavors and subsequent attempts to reclassify, propagate, and protect the bird, this article explores the power and performativity of scientific naming in both global and colonial contexts. The act of writing and publishing a species description is performative in that it creates a new species by assigning a scientific name that allows it to gain recognition within the scientific community and beyond. It also served to create and maintain the ornithological community—the idealized virtual community of ornithologists, bird collectors, and aviculturists. The history of the Mikado pheasant is part of a larger scientific effort to establish the comprehensive knowledge of the family Phasianidae, which motivated aspiring Japanese ornithologists to exert their acquired knowledge over the avifauna of the Japanese empire. These processes interacted during a time when zoological nomenclature was becoming accessible to non-Western zoologists. The discovery of the Mikado pheasant was the result of a colonial enterprise involving the British and Japanese empires, which converged on the interior of Taiwan and involved the Indigenous people who had settled in the mountain regions. The enduring legacy of the Mikado pheasant’s naming still resonates today.

A Study on the Structure of Feeling in Charlotte Bronte’s The Professor

Raymond Williams (1921-1988), one of the most influential Marxist cultural critics in the 20th century, proposed the concept of “structures of feeling” to reproduce the social psychology and emotional experience of people from an era. The structures of feeling are most conspicuous during social transformation and implicit in literary works of the same period. This paper intends to examine Charlotte Bronte’s novel The Professor with Raymond Williams’ “structures of feeling” theory to find out the conflict and contradiction between the real feelings of the characters in the novel and the dominant cultural characteristics, as well as the author’s solution strategy — the magic formula, and to uncover the participation of literary works in British empire construction.

Centering Slavery in the Age of Abolition: Insights from the Saint Lucia Register of Plantation Slaves, 1815

Abstract: Scholars have used a range of sources, including oral histories, written accounts, and plantation inventories, to reconstruct the lives of people subjected to slavery in the Atlantic world. Yet in contested colonies such as Saint Lucia, the experiences of enslaved people remain little known. Attention to a seemingly static, bureaucratic document—the 1815 Register of Plantation Slaves—provides details about all 12,726 individuals who were enslaved on estates in Saint Lucia just one year after France ceded the island to Great Britain. This, in turn, facilitates the reconstruction of life histories and genealogies of people who labored on the plantation frontier of the British Empire during the age of abolition. As one of 671 such documents created throughout the empire in the decades after Great Britain's 1807 abolition of the transatlantic slave trade, the 1815 Saint Lucia Register of Plantation Slaves illustrates the potential for such documents to significantly enlarge current understandings of slavery. The register testifies to the importance of regional trafficking and the role of reproductive labor in giving rise to a creolized enslaved population in Saint Lucia, and it poignantly illustrates how these phenomena affected enslaved individuals and families.

To Fill “a Gap in Indian History”

This essay examines the category of “Company” painting, shorthand for painting associated with the East India Company, which dominates the art historiography of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century South Asia. Using the archive of Mildred Archer (1911–2005), the British Library curator who formalized this approach in Western scholarship in tandem with scholarly commentaries by art enthusiasts P. C. Manuk (1873–1946) and Rai Krishnadas (1892–1980), we highlight the complexities of Company painting as both modality and practice. Providing insight into the little-recognized role of Ishwari Prasad (1870–1949), whom Archer and Manuk lauded as the last living artist of the Mughal tradition, we examine his vanguard formulation of a Kampani qalam (“Company style”), where he reframed Mughal art in the era of Company mercantilism and thriving exchange between European and Indian artists at Patna. Further, Prasad emerges as a key interlocutor between the critic and educator E. B. Havell (1861–1934) and the artist Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951), integrating Mughal and Company lineages within the growing pan-Asian sensibility at the Calcutta School of Art. Foregrounding Prasad's obscured history illuminates how ideas of Mughal, Company, and Modern art belonged to a common intellectual ferment; yet these approaches took separate paths in post-independence India. In tracing the genealogy of Archer's Company painting, we recover multiple voices and strands of artistry informing its gestation in addition to its colonial legacy, complicating Archer's focus on it as an artistic inheritance of the British Empire.

From Wild Palm to Plantation System: A Trajectory of Colonial Policies on Palm Oil Production in Annang, Nigeria, 1900-1960

This paper examines colonial economic policies and the oil palm production in Annang, of Calabar Province of Nigeria from 1901-1960. Before the establishment of colonial rule, the people of Annang were engaged in the production of wild oil palm for domestic use. The colonial period witnessed the introduction of plantation system for the cultivation oil palm trees and production of palm oil for export. Annang produced large quantities of palm oil and thus contributed greatly to colonial economy. In spite this, the contribution of Annang to colonial economy has over the years been treated as as an appendage to the Ibibio colonial historical experiences. The neglect is what this article attempts to correct. Oil palm tree, has a long history in Annang, especially as most its byproducts served both domestic and commercial needs of the people. This article examines Annang unique experiences during colonial period in the light of the fast-developing interest in micro studies in Nigerian historiography. It therefore focuses on the colonial policies on palm oil production, especially the various measures formulated and implemented in Annang from the inception of British colonial rule in Annang in 1901 to 1960 when Nigeria attained independence. It adopts the historical method, relying extensively on primary sources obtained from oral interviews and archival sources to interrogate palm oil production in Annang during the period under consideration. Keywords: Oil palm Trees, Palm Oil, Plantation System, and Colonial Policies.

The Shift of Global Political Power from London to Washington (1919-1945): Geopolitics of the Inter-War Period

Executive Summary: The current international order is based on the historical factors that unfolded in the past, one such major historical factor that shaped our current world is the shift of global power from the British Empire to the United States of America. The shift took place in the 20th century due to the unstable and ever-changing circumstances in the geopolitical realm. A host of different factors formed the rise of nationalism in Europe, anti-imperialist sentiments in colonies, and the First World War amongst others had a role to play in the unfolding of the event in question. The inter-war era i.e. the period of 1919-1945 which was the period of peace between the two World Wars could be said to be the most crucial period in this regard. The objective of this paper is to study the shift of political power from London to Washington in the inter-war period and to understand the effects of this seismic geopolitical change on the world at large. This paper will try to examine the shift by analyzing the economic, political, social, and geopolitical realities of the time. The various important events that occurred in the period like the Treaty of Versailles, humiliating conditions placed on Germany, formation of the League of Nations, etc. to understand their direct or indirect impact on the establishment of the United States of America as the global powerhouse that it today and how it first became a contender and them the victor of the cold war. The research uses several different research methods ranging from primary research, secondary sources, and comparative analysis of a few reliable sources that offer insight into the subject.

ملتان کی تاریخی، تہذیبی و ثقافتی عکاسی: سرائیکی ناول "بیڑی وچ دریا''

Saraiki Novel''بیڑی وچ دریا''(River in a Boat) which has come out to highlight the history, Civilization and Culture of Multan. This Novel is authored by Dr. Aslam Ansari, it is a journey of both body and Soul. The title of the novel also indicates that the tree is a metaphor for the heart and the river is the emotions, feelings and thoughts, contained in it. Characterization, Scenes, Dialogues, Emotions and details in the novel are of high quality. The author's grip on the plot seems very strong. His artistic and intellectual qualities are Saraiki. Dr. Aslam Ansari's novel "River in a Boat" has made a conscious effort to preserve the centuries-long history of Multan. So, he has to risk his life. Sanwal has to Travel to Delhi and Ajmer to fulfill his promise to rescue Heer Dikhan Vasu from the mire of sin. Sher Khan, a representative of the class, forcibly picks her up and marries her. But the same Sher Khan is killed by his nephews; references to the play are an important part of the novel. Sanwal is deeply saddened when sarang is killed in a battle with the British. There is a time that even after finding love the grief of the death of his friend Sarang due to the British occupation, the pain of injustice forces Sanwal to throws himself in to the river. The plot of the "River in the Boat" is fast and beautifully decorated. The language of the novel is convoluted and confused. The Style is charming and reminiscent of the general tone of ancient Times. The Scenes of urban life are good, while the rural scenes have a sense of thirst. In the first part of the novel, an attempt has been made two draw a map of 150 years old Multan.Sarang's innocence is proved due to Sanwal testimony during the moul Raj brutal treatment of the residents of Multan in 1888 has been made clear. Later, the account of British captured Multan.

The Roots of Ethnic Conflict in Post-World War II Myanmar, Malaysia, and the Philippines

The impacts of colonial history on present-day ethnic relations in Southeast Asia, a region known for its cultural and ethnic diversity, remain significant in understanding the sociopolitical developments within the countries of the region. This paper examines the historical origins and contemporary implications of long-standing ethnic conflicts in Southeast Asia, focusing on Myanmar, Malaysia, and the Philippines. I argue that these conflicts stemmed from colonial legacies and can be traced back to each country’s respective colonial periods, which took place at different points in history. From the imposition of territorial boundaries to racial classification and differential treatment, colonial policies resulted in enduring tensions between ethnic populations, which continue to shape ethnic relations in these countries today. British colonial rule in Myanmar fostered tensions between the Bamar majority and non-Bamar minorities, while in Malaysia, disparities between Malays and ethnic Chinese were fueled by British migration policies. In the Philippines, conflicts involving the Muslim minority in Mindanao originated from attempts by the Spanish at Christianization and subjugation, further exacerbated by American imperialism. Despite variations in colonial experiences and timelines, ethnic conflicts underscore the lasting impact of colonization on these countries’ present-day social and political dynamics.

‘Imperial Germany's Push to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean: A Strategic Imperative of Weltpolitik’

With the extension of the Berlin-Baghdad Railway and Germany's search first for naval coaling and later for radio station locations, the strategic usefulness of footholds in the Persian Gulf region came to the fore. Reliable communication with the African colonies and warships of the East Asian Cruiser Squadron in the expanse of the Indian Ocean was essential. With the allied Ottoman Empire regional expansion aimed to create a wedge to split the British Empire. Disruptive activities in Persia and Afghanistan aimed to pressure India and distract Britain. This places German strategy in the region in a significant world-political context leading up to the First World War.

Passages and rebates: Colonial officers and the shift from sea to air travel in the 1940s

Passengers seldom appear in historical accounts as having their own role in the development of civil aviation. This study identifies a particular class of air-travellers: colonial officers and their families, stationed throughout the British Empire, who in the late 1940s drove a shift to the air at a time of an acute crisis in shipping accommodations. The drive from sea to air relied on an administrative infrastructure which was created by the Crown Agents for the Colonies on the basis of their earlier agreements with shipping companies. The Crown Agents administered the passage of colonial officers and negotiated a rebate agreement with British Overseas Airways Corporation in 1949. The study concludes that the history of civil aviation and the shift from sea to air travel depended not only on technological improvements but also on passengers whose practices normalised air-travel.

Nehru Report and a Shift into Muslims Politics in India: The Evolution of Muslim Nationalism

Muslims of the sub-continent had been living together for centuries. However, the arrival of the British totally changed the political landscape of the united India. Due to unfavorable and drastic policies of Britain disrupted the political and cultural strata of the Indians. The outbreak of war of independence in 1857 revealed some strict segments from the side of British. Different constitutional measures were taken to run the administrative set up of the India. The Nehru Report of 1928 marked a significant milestone in India’s constitutional history, proposing self-governance within the British Empire. However, its centralized structure and lack of safeguards for minority rights drew criticism, particularly from the Muslim leadership. The study examined the Nehru Report its salient features and what were the response of the Muslims of India and which strategies were adopted to shift the trends of Muslims politics in India at time when report burst a cloud of criticism from the Muslims. Qualitative method of study has been adopted to carry out this research to its final edge. Primary and secondary sources have been used in this research paper.

REPRESENTATION OF THE PAST: DICKENSIAN ORPHANHOOD AS A METAPHOR OF BRITISH COLONIALISM IN RICHARD FLANAGAN’S "WANTING"

During the process of colonial expansion and conquering new territories together with their people, the British Empire never took full responsibility for the citizens of its new overseas possessions. By forcing the colonised nations to accept European standards, British colonialism aimed at expunging their indigenous traditions in a process of acculturation. If colonial power dynamics can be metaphorically seen as parent-child relations, the dissemination of racist ideas eulogising the superior value of the white man over the colonised Other exposes British colonial parenthood as a fiasco. In this paper I will discuss Richard Flanagan’s novel Wanting (2008), presenting it as an illustration of the Empire’s lack of responsibility towards its overseas progeny. I will use the Dickensian motif of orphanhood which, when transferred into a colonial reality, can be construed as a metaphor of the colonial condition of the subaltern exploited by British hegemony. I will present the orphaned Aboriginal girl Mathinna who is separated from her community and coercively subjected to the social process of acculturation. In Homi Bhabha’s terms, by adapting the coloniser’s culture, Mathinna emerges as a hybrid, who, by mimicking the hegemonic culture, becomes a threat to the certitude of the colonial authority. In the end she is without any protective affiliation and abandoned by her adoptive parents, and thus falls into the pattern of the orphan as depicted in Dickens’s fiction.

“I have not a word about my own sensations”: Intoxication, Trauma and Imperialism in The Moonstone

ABSTRACT This article examines the relationship between intoxication, trauma, and imperialism in Wilkie Collins’s The Moonstone, exploring how altered states of consciousness recuperate and repress the shameful secrets of colonial history. Throughout the novel, the characters attempt to explicate the violence of empire by retracing the past through textual fragments, such as journals, letters, and diary-entries. However, in doing so, they succumb to quasi-narcotic states of unconscious cerebration, psychic repression, and automatic action. As such, the process of detection becomes a painful, and even traumatic, experience in which psychical information is forgotten, yet never erased. Thus, while the novel attempts to formulate a critique of the British Empire, its critical voice remains regulated by the psychosomatic logic at work, simultaneously concealing and revealing the traumas of colonial dispossession. Drawing upon the work of Judith Herman, Cathy Caruth, Jill Matus, and other contemporary trauma theorists, as well as Victorian theories of addiction, unconscious memory, and psychic shock, this article suggests that while Collins frames the imperial project as both “trauma” and “intoxication,” demonstrating how political violence creates a disturbance in memory and consciousness, the novel occupies an ideologically ambivalent space, unable to assimilate fully the horrors of British imperialism.

The British Royals in Australia

The British Royals in Australia

Plateaus to Foothills: The Historical Migration of Tea Garden Labourers from Chotanagpur to North-Eastern Tea Plantation Zones of India during the British Period

Abstract Introduced by British imperialists in the early nineteenth century, tea plantation in India initially suffered from labourer shortages. Far from these tea gardens, the Chotanagpur Plateau region was marked as the major catchment area for recruiting labourers in the period 1840–1940. Thousands of socio-economically weak and marginalised people from the Chotanagpur Plateau were recruited for the newly established tea gardens of North-East India. They were subjected to various forms of exploitation through coercive service conditions. They were confined to these tea plantations for generations, as they had little prospect of moving out of the chain of bondage. That colonial legacy of servitude is still perceptible through the penurious situations of present-day tea garden labourers. This article seeks to analyse the historical context of the major push and pull factors for such large-scale migration of labourers, as well as the forces that rendered them confined to the tea estates through the generations.

Public Health Law In Malaysia And The United States: Comparing Current Applications

Background: The main objective of public health law is to pursue the highest possible level of physical and mental health in the population, consistent with the values of social justice. Aims: To elaborate on Malaysia’s public health laws that share unique commonalities with those of the United States of America, due to both countries’ colonial past as part of the British Empire. Methods: Historical review and analysis of current public health law issues in both nations. Results: The United States of America gained full independence from the British Empire on 3 September 1783, while almost three years later, on 11 August 1786, the Union Jack was raised on the island of Pulau Pinang in Malaysia. When the colonies first formed the United States, there was no national public health law; the American colonies adopted the English laws on the control of diseases. This is similar to Pulau Pinang, after the implementation of the Charter of Justice in 1807. Conclusion: Current applications of the law, which include quarantine, sanitation, disease reporting, and vaccination,exhibit interesting similarities as well as differences between the United States and Malaysia.

Self-defence Against Metaphysical Witch Attacks: A Legal Conundrum in Anglophone Africa

Superstition-driven homicide is a frequent occurrence in many African societies. People charged with homicidal acts supposedly perpetrated under the influence of belief in witchcraft and juju sometimes raise the plea of self-defence or self-defence in conjunction with mistaken belief. Hence, since the latter part of British colonial rule in Africa, particularly the 1930s, the courts in Anglophone Africa have on several occasions been invited to address the question of whether killing suspected witches to repel supposed metaphysical attacks avails to accused persons the plea of self-defence or self-defence based on mistaken belief and, if so, under what conditions. Drawing on case law, statutes, and a range of pertinent academic literature, the present study explores the historical development of the self-defence based on mistaken belief plea in witchcraft-related homicide cases in English-speaking Africa. It examines the African courts’ attitude towards the self-defence against metaphysical witch attacks defence, highlighting the divergent perspectives of various national and regional courts.