British Rule Research Articles

Man as Nature’s Prodigal: A Study of Environmental Degradation in South East Nigeria, 1990-2022

Man’s degradation and abuse of the environment has become accelerated and much more difficult to manage due to increased human population and industrialization. Against this background, the study examines the role of man in environmental degradation in South East Nigeria between 1990 and 2022. This research, by its nature, adopted the qualitative research methodology because it cannot be subjected to quantitative analysis. The research findings showed that there were several environmental degradation challenges facing South East Nigeria, including soil erosion, land and water pollution, solid waste disposal and air pollution. These were caused mainly by human factors, especially technology and industrialization. The work argued that the South East people had a healthy relationship with the natural environment before the advent of British colonial rule. This relationship changed as a result of colonialism and its attendant effects in the area. Thus environmental problems in South East Nigeria developed over time as human socio-economic relations changed in global context.

Republican violence in Northern Ireland: a comparative case study of County Tyrone

ABSTRACT Ireland has a long history of political violence emanating from Irish republicans’ desire to be free from British rule. The focus of this article is on the use of such political violence in one particular area, namely County Tyrone using a comparative analysis to interrogate republican violence during the Anglo-Irish War (1919–1921) and the period known as the Troubles (1969–1997). Drawing upon archival sources, interviews with ex-security force members and republicans with direct experience of the conflict in County Tyrone and the extant literature, the article examines whether successive generations of republicans drew upon or deviated from established templates of political violence. In doing so, it considers the practical and lethal effect of the exchange of memories, grievance, justifications, tactics and patterns of past episodes of violence. By comparing and analysing differences in the political violence employed by successive generations of republicans, similar strategies and tactics are identified. These include the use of guerrilla warfare, attacks on security forces, the local economy and infrastructure, the creation of security force-free zones and the fostering of sectarian and representative violence. The research has contemporary relevance to improve our understanding, challenge misinterpretations and myths of past events and legacies in County Tyrone.

New development: Re-investigating the influence of China on the British civil service examination system

IMPACT In the UK, civil servant selection was arranged through patronage until the publication of the 1854 Northcote–Trevelyan Report, which led to the establishment of a competitive examination system for selecting civil servants. The UK may have referenced China's competitive examination system during this process. Missionaries, merchants and diplomats learned about the Chinese government’s system and disseminated it to Europe. This practice was described in books, making European countries, including the UK, aware of such a system. Although the availability of related information in books provides circumstantial evidence to support the Chinese influence on the British examination system, more direct evidence has previously been lacking. Therefore, the authors searched the records of debates in the UK Parliament between 1853 and 1860 and found relevant evidence regarding the Chinese influence on the British examination system. Although much has been written about British colonial rule, less is known about the exchanges of civil service systems and the critical role played by colonial administrations. This article offers valuable insights into a long history of policy transfer among countries, often appropriating better practices, to improve public and civil services.

The Siliguri Corridor: A Historical Analysis of Geo-Political Vulnerability in Eastern India

The Siliguri Corridor, a mostly geo-strategic term often associated with the security architecture of eastern India, is an important geo-political space that has received special attention from experts on security, strategy and foreign policy ever since India’s independence. It has been touted as one of the most vulnerable areas of India from a security perspective, as well as the gateway to the country’s north-east and by extension, towards Southeast Asia. The current structure and geography of this corridor is a result of gradual additions as well as losses of territory in its history. This includes various policies implemented under the British colonial rule in India, followed by subsequent treaties after independence. This paper studies the genesis of the Siliguri Corridor and in the process makes an attempt to understand the historical background of settlement, migration and development of the areas which compose this corridor. It also analyzes the impact of colonialism and its contributions towards the continuing security dynamics in the region. To achieve this, a detailed study of the addition of these areas into the Indian subcontinent throughout various stages of its history has been focused upon. The paper also contributes towards addressing the dearth of literature in understanding the exact area and geographical extent of the corridor with the objective of highlighting its structural composition to add to the discourse on its security which so far has been limited to the widely discussed idea that at its narrowest, the corridor is only about 20 to 22 kilometers wide.

Examining meaning-making and decolonial resistance in Pakistani women's stories of navigating coloniality and gender

Although Pakistan attained independence from the British colonial rule in 1947, the effects of colonial violence endure in the psychosocial realities of Pakistani people. Centering the stories about coloniality of two women leaders working in nongovernmental organizations, this article examines how psychological processes of meaning-making and decolonial resistance manifest in women's engagement with (de)coloniality in Lahore, Pakistan. I draw from transnational and decolonial feminisms and critical psychologies to highlight how two women's contextually shaped realities reflect colonial legacies interlaced with local and global inequities, and to document the ways women construe and resist coloniality-driven gender injustices. Using thematic narrative analysis, findings show that these women make sense of and resist coloniality through an intersectional approach, historical counter-narratives, and reimagination. The article discusses how context-specific decolonial strategies demonstrate women's agency and resistance within transnational feminist praxis, contributing to pluralistic and justice-enhancing approaches. The findings contribute to decolonizing psychological research by documenting Pakistani women's psychological processes and advancing non-Eurocentric knowledge and practices.

Palestine-Israel conflict

Among the conflicts in the world, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is one of the most difficult and unresolved problems. In the said territory, which was called Middle Eastern Palestine, the main population were Arabs and Jews. The Arabs were the indigenous population of Palestine and therefore represented the majority of the population, while the Jews were the minority. For centuries, Jews and Arabs coexisted peacefully in Palestine, but when the Jewish part began to grow slowly and steadily in the early 20th century, the situation changed radically. In the 90s of the 19th centuries, along with the strengthening of anti-Semitic attitudes in Europe and Russia, the nationalist movement "Zionism" emerged in Eastern and Central Europe, the main goal of which was the return of the Jews to their historical homeland - Palestine. The mass emigration of Jews to Palestine is denoted by the term Aliyah. It was initiated by the Zionist organization "Hibbat Zion." From 1881 to 1939, five Aliyahs of Jews took place in Palestine, and from the same period, the conflict between Jews and Palestinians began, which spans dozens of years. In the 1940s, there were two nationalist movements in Palestine: Zionism, whose goal was to create a national center for the Jews, and Palestinian-Arab nationalism, which wanted to abolish British rule and create an independent Palestinian state. These two nationalist visions caused the conflict between the Jews and the Arabs. This conflict has not lost its relevance for decades. Both regional and non-regional countries are involved in the resolution of the conflict, however, the disagreement between Israel and Palestine has not been resolved. In addition, in the background of the conflict, the threat of terrorism has also increased, and this region remains one of the hot spots not only in the Middle East but also in the world. For decades, many international-level events and meetings have been held on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, its causes, and conflict resolution, various methods and recommendations for solving the problem have been developed, but to no avail. This is cobfirmed the surprise raid oh ,,Hamas“ on Israel on October 7, 2023, whish was follewed by the bombing of the Gaza Strit by Israel. It is the bloodiest and longest conflict. Outside forces are also involved in it, whivh destabilizes the situation in the entire Middle East. Keywords: Israel, Palestine, Zionism, Aliyah, Conflict

‘This is a sovereign assembly’: popular sovereignty, parliament and the people in the Irish Free State

ABSTRACT The stability of Irish democracy since 1922 is often a cause for contentment with lines of succession drawn from ‘Grattan’s parliament’, O’Connell’s popular movement, and the achievements of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) at Westminster through to Dáil Éireann. The IPP certainly disrupted the Commons, yet Irish politics was also shaped by the ‘mother of parliaments’ – MPs mastered parliamentary procedure and home rule legislation drew on British and colonial parliamentary models. By 1918, the party’s machine and parliamentary behaviour were rejected as much as British rule – but as Michael Laffan suggested, Sinn Féin triumphed by beating the home rulers at their own game. However, the 1922 constitution gave generous expression to the sovereignty of the people, and for judicial review. But, within short succession, facility for popular initiative was overridden. Ironically, the Irish Free State would never be amended by popular will or judicial review but by parliamentary majority in 25 amendments as the people only voted to adopt it in 1922 and replace it in 1937. In practice then, it was closer to a vision of Dicey's supremacy of parliament dogma that prevailed, so much so, that Seán Lemass acrimoniously proclaimed in 1934: ‘this is a sovereign assembly’.

Between Nationalism and Internationalism: Robert Weltsch and the Colonial Dilemma in World War II Palestine

Abstract: This article proposes that the marginality of World War II in the historiography of Zionism and Israel is based on a historical perspective that shaped contemporaries' evaluation of reality and framed postwar historiography. Through the wartime writings of Robert Weltsch, I argue that this historiographic absence draws on a dilemma: Should Britain's colonized populations continue their fight for independence from British rule during the war or support the empire in the world conflict against the Axis? The dilemma expressed a tension between the colonial aspects of the Yishuv and its reliance on the British Empire, on the one hand, and its anticolonial struggle for independence from the British, on the other. This article examines the Yishuv's wartime dilemma using the distinction Weltsch made between a narrow perspective, which he associated with World War I's legacy of self-determination, and a broad international view.

Advertising as a Catalyst for Social Transformation: A Study on Public Service Advertisements and Nation Building in India

Media, the fourth pillar of democracy, is one of the institutions, systems and resources created by the society to fulfill its various needs. Today, as a security guard of democracy, media has reached its reach not only in the country but across the world. In this era of information technology, mass communication has an important contribution in the society. Whatever the limitations of the early forms of communication, the rapid development of communication media has been closely related to the development of modern human society. In the last few years, the revolutionary changes in the procedures of mass communication due to scientific progress have completely changed the human life-style. From Parliament to the streets, all ideological wars are being fought today through the mass media. Before independence, the media awakened the light of patriotism and resistance to British rule among the common people. After independence, this medium of consciousness emerged from new knowledge and science and called upon the common people to protect their rights and duties.

CULTIVATING CREATIVITY: THE EMERGENCE OF ART SCHOOLS IN INDIA

Education stands as a cornerstone in the advancement of any nation, serving as a catalyst for progress and enlightenment. It acts as a key, unlocking doors of opportunity and enriching the intellect of individuals. Concurrently, art, a timeless facet of human civilization, bears witness to the unique essence of every society throughout history. However, education not only fosters the appreciation of art but also cultivates a liberated and conscientious mindset. Thus, education in the arts emerges as a conscious endeavor, wherein individuals strive to transform and elevate their lives. The inception of art schools in India finds its roots in the colonial era, particularly under British rule, where the modern education system took shape. Consequently, the establishment of formal institutions for artistic education in the country can be attributed to this pivotal historical period.

From Wild Palm to Plantation System: A Trajectory of Colonial Policies on Palm Oil Production in Annang, Nigeria, 1900-1960

This paper examines colonial economic policies and the oil palm production in Annang, of Calabar Province of Nigeria from 1901-1960. Before the establishment of colonial rule, the people of Annang were engaged in the production of wild oil palm for domestic use. The colonial period witnessed the introduction of plantation system for the cultivation oil palm trees and production of palm oil for export. Annang produced large quantities of palm oil and thus contributed greatly to colonial economy. In spite this, the contribution of Annang to colonial economy has over the years been treated as as an appendage to the Ibibio colonial historical experiences. The neglect is what this article attempts to correct. Oil palm tree, has a long history in Annang, especially as most its byproducts served both domestic and commercial needs of the people. This article examines Annang unique experiences during colonial period in the light of the fast-developing interest in micro studies in Nigerian historiography. It therefore focuses on the colonial policies on palm oil production, especially the various measures formulated and implemented in Annang from the inception of British colonial rule in Annang in 1901 to 1960 when Nigeria attained independence. It adopts the historical method, relying extensively on primary sources obtained from oral interviews and archival sources to interrogate palm oil production in Annang during the period under consideration. Keywords: Oil palm Trees, Palm Oil, Plantation System, and Colonial Policies.

The Roots of Ethnic Conflict in Post-World War II Myanmar, Malaysia, and the Philippines

The impacts of colonial history on present-day ethnic relations in Southeast Asia, a region known for its cultural and ethnic diversity, remain significant in understanding the sociopolitical developments within the countries of the region. This paper examines the historical origins and contemporary implications of long-standing ethnic conflicts in Southeast Asia, focusing on Myanmar, Malaysia, and the Philippines. I argue that these conflicts stemmed from colonial legacies and can be traced back to each country’s respective colonial periods, which took place at different points in history. From the imposition of territorial boundaries to racial classification and differential treatment, colonial policies resulted in enduring tensions between ethnic populations, which continue to shape ethnic relations in these countries today. British colonial rule in Myanmar fostered tensions between the Bamar majority and non-Bamar minorities, while in Malaysia, disparities between Malays and ethnic Chinese were fueled by British migration policies. In the Philippines, conflicts involving the Muslim minority in Mindanao originated from attempts by the Spanish at Christianization and subjugation, further exacerbated by American imperialism. Despite variations in colonial experiences and timelines, ethnic conflicts underscore the lasting impact of colonization on these countries’ present-day social and political dynamics.

Racism and Alienation in Postcolonial Context: A Study of Tariq Rehman’s Short Story “BINGO”

Referring to the phenomenon of racism and alienation in Pakistani literature, it is first advantageous to examine Pakistan’s Postcolonial democracy. Pakistan was colonized under British rule for 90 years and got its independent recognition in 1947. In 1971, the political and social conflicts fueled the armed forces to start a third war between India and Pakistan. Consequently, East Pakistan (i.e., present Bangladesh) formally separated from West Pakistan. This paper focuses on two major dimensions of postcolonialism i.e., Racism and Alienation, in Tariq Rehman’s short fiction Bingo. Postcolonialism is used as a theoretical framework to postulate the formation and fragmentation of East and West Pakistani nations in 1971. The conventional treatment of colonial hegemony by West Pakistan to East Pakistan is analyzed through the characters of Tajassur and Safeer. The outcome of the hegemonic scenario gives birth to some toxic substances of civil war such as brutality, mass destruction, deprivation, hatred, and family loss, which are couched through the diction and style opted by Tariq Rehman. This study is exclusive in a way that it elucidates the social and emotional estrangement of the Pakistan Military Academy (PMA) towards a minority (i.e., Bengalis) before the independence of Bangladesh. This work further examines the text to mediate all the scenarios of West Pakistan’s power shift from being under British raj to rule over Bengalis. To interpret the orientation and worthiness of data; thematic analysis is used as a more flexible yet influential tool; to discuss the hegemonic foundation after partition in Pakistan

The History of Togoland Under the British Rule (1914‒1956)

The article is devoted to the history of British Togoland, in particular, the central part of the Volta region (southeast of modern Ghana). The time frame of the study covers the period from the First World War to the incorporation of the Volta region into the Gold Coast. During the pre-colonial period, the region was a zone of active commercial networks, both in the slave trade and in a wide range of goods, which varied according to local and international demand. The ethnic majority living in the region is the Ewe group of peoples. The transition from the German colonial rule (1890–1914) – a short-term, but fundamentally important factor for the history of the region – led to the need of the Bremen missionaries work adaptation to the new conditions, the formation of Ewe’s own synod and political associations. Until 1957, the inhabitants of the central part of the Volta region tried to defend their right to unite the territory of the former German Togoland and maintain contacts with the Germans. The management of Togoland was also complicated by the location of the colonial government’s main office in the Gold Coast: by 1920s the Bremen missionary schools had already been transferred to the Gold Coast Department of Education, and the United Free Church of Scotland had to act as intermediaries between the British colonial government and German missionaries, most of the time remotely.

The British Royals in Australia

The British Royals in Australia

Self-defence Against Metaphysical Witch Attacks: A Legal Conundrum in Anglophone Africa

Superstition-driven homicide is a frequent occurrence in many African societies. People charged with homicidal acts supposedly perpetrated under the influence of belief in witchcraft and juju sometimes raise the plea of self-defence or self-defence in conjunction with mistaken belief. Hence, since the latter part of British colonial rule in Africa, particularly the 1930s, the courts in Anglophone Africa have on several occasions been invited to address the question of whether killing suspected witches to repel supposed metaphysical attacks avails to accused persons the plea of self-defence or self-defence based on mistaken belief and, if so, under what conditions. Drawing on case law, statutes, and a range of pertinent academic literature, the present study explores the historical development of the self-defence based on mistaken belief plea in witchcraft-related homicide cases in English-speaking Africa. It examines the African courts’ attitude towards the self-defence against metaphysical witch attacks defence, highlighting the divergent perspectives of various national and regional courts.

Economic Transformations in British Colonial Punjab and the Feudal Identity of District Jhang

Jhang a historic city of Punjab is situated at the junction of two rivers Jehlum and Chenab. Its fertile lands have always been a big source of prosperity. During British rule, colonial authorities in Punjab made many reforms in this region. They not only reformed the agriculture sector but also improved infrastructure. Construction of a road network, railway line, postal and telegraph system as well as supply of electricity had positive impacts on the social and economic life of Jhang. Although all these developments were made for colonial interests ultimately these benefitted the peoples of Jhang. Among British reforms, the most important were agricultural reforms. These reforms had a deep impact on the future and socio-economic and political setup of Jhang. After agricultural reforms and establishing canal colonies, Jhang was neglected in terms of establishing agro-based and other industrial units and new agricultural research and science and technology institutions. As a result, the Jhang was denied the chances for advancement and growth that could have driven and propelled it to become a more prosperous and progressed region. Here the question arises of whether the actual purpose of agricultural reforms in district Jhang was only to create certain classes to protect colonial interests and reward them for their loyalties? Did the British Colonial agrarian reforms lay the foundation for the Feudal system in Jhang?

Irish-American Anti-Imperialism in Patrick Ford’s The Criminal History of the British Empire

Abstract In 1881, Patrick Ford, the Irish-American nationalist editor of the New York Irish newspaper The Irish World and American Industrial Liberator, published The criminal history of the British empire, a collection of five letters that he had written to William Gladstone. In The criminal history, Ford constructed a comprehensive account of British imperial history, beginning with England’s conquest of Ireland, before detailing the colonization of North America, Britain’s participation in the transatlantic slave trade, the American Revolution, British rule in India, the opium wars, and Britain’s contemporary colonization of Africa. This article contributes to scholarship on American views of the British empire in the post-bellum United States. In exploring how Ford constructed a Manichean interpretation of world history, where the British imperial project devastated every region it invaded, the article analyses Ford’s reasons for writing and publishing the letters that formed The criminal history. Finally, the article shows that Ford’s central purpose was to foster a visceral hatred of the British empire among his Irish-American readership, to maintain a commitment to their ethnic heritage as proud Irish people, and to encourage his readers that a better future would soon arrive, when the British empire was finally a relic of the past.

A Welsh Vision of Empire? Welsh Imperialists and the Indian Empire

Neither Welsh history nor imperial history has given much attention to the Welsh connection with empire. While English, Scottish, and Irish imperial history have been developed in recent decades, Wales has been largely ignored. In relation to India, there have been projects on missionaries and the East India Company, but little that focuses on Welsh imperialists during the period of Crown Rule. Despite having a smaller presence than other British nationalities, the Welsh were present in India between 1858–1947, and interacted with imperialism in ways which were distinctly Welsh. This research will explore the Welsh in India during this period and how their Welsh identity interacted with the empire to create a unique Welsh conception of imperialism. Constructed in the domestic press, it emphasised Welsh understanding of indigenous peoples through their own experience of being a minority within the UK and attached itself to a strong sense of Britishness manifested in loyalty to the empire. This ideology, however, had limited impact on the ground in India, with Welsh imperialists generally conforming to the racial and class norms of British India. Welsh imperialism remained a prism through which the Welsh thought about themselves rather than a method of action. Examining this experience adds new dimensions to imperial thinking, especially in relation to how faith and language were transported, reimagined, and contested in the colonial sphere. It demonstrates how the British exported their national and regional ideological baggage which continued to influence their thinking, despite being removed from the physical landscape in which they were forged. Welsh people like Sir Lawrence Jenkins and the missionaries of the Northeast of India had tangible impacts on the colonial space which were fundamentally inspired by their Welshness. This greatly adds to our understanding of how British imperialism operated and has implications far beyond India.

Island of dreams: Post/colonial imaginaries in contemporary Cypriot Anglophone literature

The island of Cyprus has for centuries been a contested terrain, and occupied by various colonial powers. I use Cyprus joining the Commonwealth in 1960 as a starting point to explore the relationship between Cyprus and specifically British colonial rule in the twentieth century, read through the lens of two works by contemporary Anglophone Cypriot authors Polis Loizou and Alexandra Manglis. I examine how these authors undermine colonial imaginaries of the island, using speculative and literary forms to emphasize the slippages, instabilities, and fugitive nature of colonial subjects. Enfolding the complex history of the island within these readings, I posit Cyprus as a mythologically rich and boundary-vexing “island of dreams”, and foreground imaginative writing from Cypriot authors in counterpoint to historical colonial attitudes.