English Education Policy Research Articles

English language policy in Thailand

The focus of this article is on English language policy in Thailand and education policy in particular as the most obvious manifestation of official overt language policy. As such English language education policy offers a lens through which to examine current language ideologies and the connections between language policy and practices. We place English within the wider linguistic landscape of Thailand in relation to Thai and other languages and explore the monolingual and monocultural ideologies that underpin much policy in this area. However, we also suggest that recent policy reflects an increasing awareness of multilingualism. Nonetheless, Thailand along with many other countries in ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) has invested considerable resources and time in English, based on an underlying ideology that views English as the language of development and globalisation. At the same time, there has been persistent dissatisfaction with the perceived results of education practices as regards English proficiency levels. We argue that much of this supposedly low level of proficiency is due to inappropriate native speaker and Anglo-centric models of English which do not reflect the growing use of English as a lingua franca (ELF) globally and particularly as the official lingua franca of ASEAN. We also note the concerns that have been raised as regards the detrimental effects on other languages and areas of education resulting from an over-emphasis on English and the inequalities that this may reinforce.

Learning to Teach: A Case Study of Student Teachers’ Practicum and Policy Recommendations

This qualitative case study was conducted to gather information on the implementation of teaching practicum in order to improve the quality of the program in an English teacher education program at a state-owned university, Jambi, Indonesia. Information was gathered from five recent teacher graduates, five beginner teachers, five school principals, and five teacher educators on their perceptions of English Foreign Language Teacher Education Program (EFLTEP) graduates as beginner teachers. This qualitative study employed a background survey, document analyses and interviews for data collection. Document analyses were used to examine the aims and content of the English teacher education program and official Indonesian English teacher education curriculum and policies. Semi-structured interviews were used to explore the main data from graduates and collect information from the beginner teachers. Interviews with principals and teacher educators were used to obtain further data and evidence about the beginner teachers’ knowledge and preparedness to teach. We organized our analysis, findings, and discussion around the implementation of teaching practicum. The analyses of the documents and texts revealed that major themes related to (1) the standards for implementing the teaching practicum in the program, (2) quality of the teaching practicum, (3) duration of the teaching practicum, (4) the roles of mentor teachers and teacher educators, and (5) selecting school partners for the student teacher practicum. Particularly, the findings indicated that teaching practicum projects undertaken during the program provided suitable but limited experience for student teachers to translate their knowledge learnt at university into the real practice of teaching at school levels. For future improvement of the program, the role of supervising teachers and teacher educators in assisting student teachers during the teaching practicum project should be a priority. The organisation and management of school–university partnerships for schools taking part in the teaching practicum require attention to maximise benefits to student teachers.

Secondary Teachers’ Perception on English Education Policies in Korea

Due to the expected value of English proficiency for living in a global society, acquiring English proficiency has become a major concern for many people in Korea. This attention is because people in Korea believe English is providing them with premium opportunities to better their lives such as being admitted to prestigious schools or getting high-paying jobs. The differential investment in learning English thus has yielded a new form of social inequality, dividing people between the English rich and the English poor. Perceiving the potential negative effects of the English divide and the importance of equipping Koreans’ English proficiency, the Korean government has put effort and strategic investment into improving public English education in Korea. Studies on policies have often been presented in a multilingual context where the concept of language policies, language education policies, foreign language policies, and English language education policies are somewhat blurred. Looking at the English education policies in a monolingual society like Korea exclusively can present a focused view on the effectiveness of English education policies. This study presents the key policies put into practice to improve the quality of English education in Korea and highlights secondary teachers’ responses to those policies in attaining the policy goals. A total of 1039 secondary teachers working in Daegu participated in the survey administered twice: 557 in 2010 and 482 in 2016. The perceptual changes are discussed with the participants’ comments included in the results. The study will provoke discussion and intuition for managing English education policies in similar contexts.

The rise and fall of human rights in English education policy? Inescapable national interests and PREVENT

The article interprets changes in human rights education in English school policy on values which have increasingly been framed by PREVENT and a move from international to national expressions of values. It reveals the extent of the impact and nature of this change on human rights education in school policy for the first time. It reports changes from minimal to maximal expectations compounded by an increased focus of school performance. It broadly illustrates the extent to which values are politically framed and significantly how recently ‘sudden’ political changes in the United Kingdom can be seen as part of a change trend which is almost 10 years old. It draws on Schwartz’s theoretical structure of values, Baxi’s conceptualisation of rights and Lohrenscheit’s notion of learning about and learning for human rights as these, respectively, reveal conceptual clarity in values, human rights and pedagogy.

Forum: Deeper than Rap: Expanding Conceptions of Hip-hop Culture and Pedagogy in the English Language Arts Classroom

Since the early 1990s, language and literacy scholars have explored the pedagogical potential of hip-hop culture in the English language arts classroom. Despite more than 25 years’ worth of peer-reviewed research documenting its effectiveness, hip-hop pedagogies continue to be relegated to the margins of English education policy and practice. In this essay, I argue that the future of “hip-hop based education” (HHBE) research in English education demands moving beyond making a case for hip-hop’s pedagogical merits and toward helping teachers and teacher educators put theories of HHBE into practice, given their various identities and institutional contexts. Thus, I begin by addressing practical and philosophical dilemmas regarding the role, purpose, and function of hip-hop-based curricular interventions in this current era of the Common Core State Standards. As the title of this Forum piece suggests, hip-hop culture and pedagogy are more than just rap music and textual analysis. Therefore, I seek to shift the conversation from pedagogies with hip-hop texts to a more complex unit of analysis known as “pedagogies with hip-hop aesthetics.” With a broader and deeper understanding of hip-hop cultural knowledge, as well as the tensions and contradictions contributing to the shortcomings of HHBE research, I conclude with a call for additional studies that “show and prove” the possibilities (and pitfalls) of hip-hop pedagogies in English language arts and English education classrooms.

Raising the standard: contradictions in the theory of student-teacher learning

This article offers a critical examination of the use of teachers’ standards for student-teachers in teacher education in England. Using an illustrative data example of student-teachers working in a school department setting, benefits of a cultural historical activity theory analysis are forwarded. The example highlights shortcomings in the current education of student-teachers which is in transition owing to changes in English teacher education policy. Focusing heavily on meeting required teachers’ standards, the school teaching practice in the research example does not encourage student-teachers or teachers to develop their understanding of teaching. Neither is the context of the teacher education work taken into account nor personal views of participants. Ways of analysing experiences recognising the influence of schools in affecting the kinds of learning available to student-teachers are needed in England in order to increase understanding of the benefits and drawbacks of different approaches to school-based teacher education.

Vernacular Education in India: British Education Policy in 1840

Vernacular Education in India: British Education Policy in 1840

Some Critical Issues on English in East Asia and Their Pedagogic Implications

In this study, we evaluated the current situation of English use and English language education in East Asia in conjunction with some critical issues relevant to ELT, such as EMI education, the recruitment of native speaker teachers, and the popularity of English Village. The role and status of English are changing with the globalisation for political, economic, cultural and business cooperation among nations. In several current contexts, English is no longer used to communicate only with native English speakers but is also employed as a common means of intercultural communication or English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Although the development of Asian ELF studies is at the early stage as compared to European ELF research, some research projects such as the Asian Corpus of English (ACE) have produced empirical findings on Asian ELF. Asian ELF studies provide pedagogic implications including the need for flexible and effective language use rather than native-speaker norms or grammatical accuracy. Therefore, from a curriculum development perspective, English education policy, classroom teaching methods and teacher education programs should take this changing nature of English use under consideration. From a marketing perspective, English language education and teaching approaches in East Asia need to raise student awareness regarding the opportunity English can provide for intercultural communication, which is characterized by variability and diversity, which is what is particularly important for engaging in effective and successful communication.

“I’m still insecure” : Korean English Language Teachers’ Perceptions on English Education Policy Favoring Native English Teachers

This qualitative study explores the teacher identities of three Korean English language teachers(KELTs) in higher education by delving into how they perceive the current college English education policy in favor of native English speaking teachers(NESTs); and themselves as non-native English speaking teachers. Data was collected mainly through interviews and teaching journals. A grounded theory approach was used to analyze the data. While teacher participants recognized that NESTs have been recently on the increase in universities, they perceived that there are problems with the overall employment policy of NESTs such as doubt on effectiveness of NESTs’ classes and their qualifications as college professors. With regard to KELTs’ teaching and status, they felt insecure and thus wanted to reinforce their qualifications as language teachers, and also frustrated with the situation that would limit themselves to partaking just a supporting role in classes taught by NESTs. Based on the findings, pedagogical implications on teacher education programs are provided.

The moral frontiers of English education policy: governmentality and ethics within an alternative provision free school

This article is a critical poststructuralist analysis of Conservative led free school policy in England focussing on claims made by the New Schools Network and in the 2010 White Paper that free school provision promotes social justice. The article presents an empirical study of an alternative provision free school as a lens through which these claims can be interrogated. Drawing from Foucault’s concept of governmentality the article analyses the narratives of teachers working in the school in order to gain insights into the microphysics of the policy rationalities mobilised within the discursive site of the free school and claims that such provision promotes social justice. The teachers interviewed demonstrate a strong alignment to free school policy discourse, but also a blurring of pastoral and disciplinary rationalities expressed in terms of the rehabilitation of students on the educational boundaries of the “normal”. The article concludes that the school is a tactical move within neoliberal education policy in which the state responsibilises a new polity of actors, including teachers, sponsors and communities contracting out its interventions in order to govern the ungovernable. The article calls for further empirical research of free school provision in order to contest neoliberal discourses which obfuscate complex systemic failure and the social reality of intergenerational unemployment and disadvantage.

English language testing of very young children: The case of Japan

Taking commercial English language tests is becoming common practice among young English learners in Japan. With a specific focus on the Jidō Eiken test, this study examines English language test-taking activity by analyzing textual data retrieved from three data sources. Jidō Eiken is found to represent a complex phenomenon involving many stakeholders, including very young learners of English who have not fully acquired their first language and adults who often initiate the test-taking. This test-taking phenomenon is embedded in a “testing culture” in which individuals’ ascribed social worth is based on test results, resulting in severe competition. In light of such findings, I discuss how Jidō Eiken might be used in the near future, and draw attention to the negative and unintended consequences of the potential scenarios with respect to English language education and language policy in Japan and other contexts in the Asia-Pacific region.

KEMAJUAN SAINS DAN PENYELIDIKAN DI NEGERI-NEGERI SELAT DAN NEGERI-NEGERI MELAYU BERSEKUTU, 1800-1941

This article examines the historical context in which scientific research institutions were established in the Straits Settlements and the Malay States between 1800 and the Japanese Occupation. It cannot be denied that one of the main impetus in the development of both the Straits Settlements as well as the Federated Malay States was the progress made in science and scientific research. The article focuses on two parts, firstly on the British education policy in regard to science; and secondly, the establishment of scientific research institutions for socio-economic reasons. The development of scientific knowledge and skills in schools and other educational institutions as well as the establishment of scientific research institutions pointed to British interest in wanting to consolidate their colonial interest in Malaya in the late 19th and early 20th century. It was these educational and research institutions which provided the requisite technical know-how that was necessary for the effective administration of the country, for the development of primary economic resources and the control of diseases affecting migrant labour.

Language education policy enactment and individual agency

This article explores language planning and policy from the perspective of individual agency and its embodiments in the process of implementing an English language education policy ensemble at a public university in Vietnam. The policy exemplifies the influence of globalized standards on local language education systems. It aims to build a national framework in Vietnam based on a Western model known as the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) which is expected to serve as a platform for reforming curriculum design, course materials development, and testing and assessment. Drawn from a set of data obtained through in-depth interviews with university administrators, the findings highlight the conflicting policy positions taken up by teacher-cum-administrators engaged in the policy enactment process. The paper argues that a critical barrier to CEFR enactment lies in the constraints and demotivation within each participant, particularly of those involved at a higher level of decision-making process in the institution. It is important, therefore, to deal with these conflicts at the level of macro policy planning to neutralize the paradox of policy enactment at the local site.

The World Englishes paradigm

Purpose The world Englishes (WE) paradigm gravitating around the recent models of English has been theoretically discussed in the applied linguistics profession: that is, English today has gone beyond the general description of post-colonial and institutionalized varieties and is being defined as the linguistic diversity realized by all global users (Ates et al., 2015). This advocates the creation of “multidialectical English speakers/listeners” among WE with intercultural insight and knowledge (Lee, 2012) by supporting linguistic and cultural diversity with cultural tolerance. While theoretical discussions on WE abound, this paper aims to focus more on local learners/users of WE: it investigates Korean university students’ perceptions of WE, their attitudes toward WE and finally factors that affect their perceptions and attitudes. Design/methodology/approach Sixty Korean students in a university participated in the survey. Data include questionnaires and interviews. Findings Results indicate that the students still have a preference and are able to more easily recognize the inner circle (IC) Englishes but have a keen interest in being exposed to WE for less stressful, more interactive, communicative and comprehensible uses. Pedagogical implications and suggestions are also discussed. Research limitations/implications The data enable researchers to gain more insight into several of the social, political and cultural aspects or dimensions that are at play in the WE debate. As previous studies have indicated, an individual’s attitude toward WE is not just a simple matter of choosing which form of English to learn; it is one that has important ramifications in shaping a person’s worldview and cultural perspectives. Within the context of the WE paradigm, this study reveals the influence still held by IC countries yet provides strong evidence that an awareness of the reality of and interest in WE presently exists in Korea. Practical/implications This finding has important implications for English instructors, institutions and educational policy makers in the expanding circle where local varieties of English are emerging. Originality/value This paper is all originated from the current study’s research questions and interviews. Students were all attending a university at that time. This study carries an important value, as it reports how Korean university students feel/value WE in relation to IC Englishes and how they feel and shape their attitudes toward the theoretical justification of WE.

Complementing the mainstream: an exploration of partnership work between complementary alternative provisions and mainstream schools

In the English context, complementary alternative provisions (APs) can make specific positive contributions for young people at risk of exclusion from mainstream school. Whilst recognising the potential value of all complementary AP that is carefully selected and of high quality, we problematise the ‘repair and return’ rationale that continues to underpin the commissioning of some provisions. Drawing on two case studies, we explicate the nature and value of partnership working between complementary provider and mainstream school. We argue that when a productive partnership happens (1) schools take greater responsibility for young people at risk of exclusion, and (2) there is the potential to encourage wider shifts in the learning context of the mainstream school in ways that are beneficial for a larger group of pupils. Such wider transformations in the mainstream context may be particularly beneficial given the current performative regimes that dominate English education policy, and focus schools’ work on the achievement of key data targets rather than inclusive practice. We reflect on what can be learnt from these cases in relation to the evolving AP policy context in England.

Constructing multiculturalism at school: Negotiating tensions in talk about ethnic diversity

Recent trends in British education policy have led to an increased focus on promoting ethnic diversity in schools, as well as greater parental involvement in school choice. This combination has led some schools to actively market diversity as a selling point in order to attract more minority ethnic students, as well as attract White middle-class students seeking a more ‘diverse’ educational experience. This article analyses how students attending such a school in England engage with discourses of multiculturalism. I identify three themes that characterise talk about multiculturalism at school: (1) multiculturalism-as-beneficial commodity, (2) claims of ‘reverse racism’ in provision for minority groups, and (3) denial of racism and constructing the school as a tolerant environment where everybody gets along. Through an analysis of discourse strategies and positioning tactics, I demonstrate how students negotiate tensions between the existence of racism and the construction of an inclusive and anti-racist educational environment.

Power relations in the enactment of English language education policy for Chinese schools

ABSTRACTThe scale of English language education in China is astounding, but recent research has shown that the latest national English education policy for Chinese schools has not been implemented successfully due to various reasons. One reason given for the lack of success is the impracticability of the top-down policy itself excluding teachers’ involvement and neglecting the contextual constraints. Building on the theoretical framework of multi-levelled actors in language planning and language policy, and drawing on some key concepts in relation to power in Critical Language Policy research, this paper explores how a national English language curriculum that emphasizes the international standards and norms in curriculum design has been enacted, ineffectively, by the key stakeholders through analysing the specific roles of three groups of key stakeholders involved in the English as a foreign language curriculum policy implementation.

The importance of English in primary school education in China: perceptions of students

English has become a compulsory subject from Primary Three in China since 2003 and is gradually being introduced even earlier into the curriculum in many schools. This highlights the official importance of English in both primary school education and society. However, although a compulsory subject, there are fewer English lessons than for Chinese and mathematics, the other core subjects. This raises questions about the real status of English in primary school education and whether it is really perceived as important. This paper firstly examines China’s current primary school English language education policy and discusses the implications for the primary school curriculum. Adopting a qualitative research design, which included six focus group interviews with students, the study investigated the attitudes of students toward the learning of English in the primary schools. The study was conducted in three different government schools with varied socio-economic status. Findings show the positive attitudes of children toward English education and their support for the early introduction of English; however, some feel that English is not as important as Chinese and mathematics. After reporting and discussing the different perspectives of the students, this paper concludes by considering the implications for English education in primary schools in China and other Asian countries.

Reinforcing the ‘diminished’ subject? The implications of the ‘vulnerability zeitgeist’ for well-being in educational settings

Pessimistic discourses about crises in youth and children's well-being, mental health and vulnerability permeate English educational policy and practice. These generate vague and slippery elisions of wellbeing and mental health, and the related rise of an ad hoc, confusing market of psycho-emotional interventions promoted by new types of 'pay-experts'. Revisiting earlier arguments that these developments depict a ‘diminished’ human subject, we propose that the incoherent state of policy, much research and practice in this area warrants robust challenge and critique. In particular, more precision about key concepts of social and emotional learning, mental health and wellbeing, a reining in of universal programmes, and serious interest in the types of curriculum that can offer richer, more meaningful alternatives to developing wellbeing in educational settings.

Exploring the relative lack of impact of research on ‘ability grouping’ in England: a discourse analytic account

Grouping students by ‘ability’ is a topic of long-standing contention in English education policy, research and practice. While policy-makers have frequently advocated the practice as reflecting educational ‘standards’, research has consistently failed to find significant benefits of ‘ability’ grouping; and indeed has identified disadvantages for some (low-attaining) pupil groups. However, this research evidence has apparently failed to impact on practice in England. This article, contextualised by the authors’ interests in education and social inequality, seeks to do two things. First, it provides a brief analysis of the existing research evidence on the impact of ‘ability’ grouping, with particular reference to socio-economic inequality, identifying seven different explanations for the poorer progress of pupils in low sets that emerge from the literature. Second, it applies Foucaultian ‘analysis of discourse’ to propose potential explanations for the apparent lack of traction of existing research with policy and practice, arguing that practices of ‘ability grouping’ reflect cultural investments in discourses of ‘natural order’ and hierarchy, with particular resonance for the discursive and political habitus of middle-class parents. The authors postulate that investing in a powerful counter-discourse of enlightenment science, illustrated via their current randomised control trial of different approaches to pupil grouping, may offer a means to challenge hegemonic discourses that underpin current classroom practice.