Brinkman Traffic Simulator Research Articles

Comprehensive assessment of turfgrass wear tolerance: A study on mechanical and chemical traits

A key criterion in the selection process for turfgrass breeding is effective wear tolerance, indicating the plant's capacity to endure forces that may impact leaves, stems, crowns, and roots. In this study, the correlation between mechanical and chemical traits and the wear tolerance of 37 cultivars belonging to seven turfgrass species was examined. Mechanical properties and fiber characteristics of wide range of turfgrass cultivars were determined and compared for the first time. The evaluation of turf wear tolerance (described as turf cover index, TCI) was conducted through a three-year field trial using a Brinkman traffic simulator. Tensile tests were conducted to determine biomechanical parameters. According to the TCI, the most wear-resistant cultivars were those of Lolium perenne, Most of these cultivars demonstrated a TCI below 0.1. The cultivar 'Nira' was the most resistant, with a TCI of − 0.285. The least resilient cultivars belonged to Festuca ovina and Festuca rubra, all exhibiting TCI values above 0.6. Agrostis stolonifera and Agrostis capillaris were characterised by lower cellulose and acid detergent fiber content but high hemicellulose content. The opposite result was determined for Festuca rubra and Festuca ovina. The highest hemicellulose ratio was obtained for Poa pratensis. Lolium perenne was characterised by relatively high content of cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose. Cultivars of Festuca arundinace distinctly differed from other cultivars, demonstrating higher mechanical resistance with an average force-to-break of 3.73 N. Cultivars of Agrostis stolonifera and Agrostis capillaris reached force-to-break values up to 1.0 N. The relationships between TCI and fiber composition of turfgrass leaves were significant for crude fiber, NDF and hemicellulose content. Thus higher NDF and hemicellulose content resulted in higher force-to-break and work-to-break parameters.

Addressing Misperceptions Regarding Buffalograss Tolerance to Sandy Soils, Traffic, and Shade

Buffalograss [Buchloë dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm. syn. Bouteloua dactyloides (Nutt.) Columbus] is often reported as being intolerant of shade, traffic, and sandy soils. Historically, these observations were made on early turf‐type cultivars or common types and may not reflect performance of modern cultivars and germplasm selections. As an example, the 1991, 1996, and 2002 buffalograss National Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP) trials had evaluation sites consisting of sandy loam to sandy clay loam. One of the four sandy loam sites in the 1991 trial, and five of nine sandy loam–sandy clay loam sites in the 1996 and 2002 tests had buffalograss entries rating 6.0 or greater. We have since successfully established buffalograss on sandy sites with management changes typical of grasses considered adapted to sandy sites. In addition, multiyear shade and traffic studies were conducted at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln turfgrass research farm. A Brinkman traffic simulator was used to apply weekly traffic to 104 buffalograss genotypes from mid‐June through October in 2013 and 2014. Following 2 yr of moderate traffic, 70 of the genotypes were minimally affected by the traffic treatment. Shade tolerance studies were started in 2009 and 2013. Three buffalograss genotypes rated in the top 6% of 54 genotypes evaluated when grown under 60% shade cloth in the 2009 study. In 2013, four buffalograss entries grown under 60% shade cloth rated in the top 12% of 34 evaluated genotypes. A comparison of relative performance of 16 genotypes in common among the 2009 and 2013 shade studies highlight significant variability in performance under different environmental conditions and the need for revisiting historical recommendations.

Kentucky Bluegrass Divot Resistance as Affected by Cultivar, Trinexapac‐ethyl, and Soil Cultivation

Athletic fields constructed with a high percentage of sand rely on the presence of above‐ and belowground turfgrass biomass to provide surface stability to athletes. As turfgrass plants are worn away during field use, their stabilizing effect is lost, increasing the potential for divoting. Excessive divoting results in poor footing and may increase the potential for athlete injury. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the effects of two trinexapac‐ethyl (TE) treatment regimes and one cultivation procedure on the divot resistance, tiller density, belowground biomass, and turfgrass ground cover of nine Kentucky bluegrass (KBG) (Poa pratensis L.) cultivars under varying levels of simulated traffic. Trinexapac‐ethyl (0.17 kg a.i. ha−1) was applied every 28 d from either May–July or May–October. The cultivation treatment, which consisted of a combination of vertical mowing 1.3 cm below the soil surface and core cultivation, occurred in the spring of each year. Traffic was applied starting in late summer using a Brinkman traffic simulator. Treatments and KBG cultivars were evaluated for divot resistance by measuring the length of divots created using the head of a golf pitching wedge attached to the end of a weighted pendulum. Differences in divot resistance among KBG cultivars increased as traffic level intensified. The application of TE from May–July reduced divot length most relative to the control both years of the experiment (18 and 7% in 2006 and 2007, respectively). Tiller density and belowground biomass were increased by May–July application of TE by 9 and 8%, respectively, compared to the control. The application of TE from May–October and the cultivation treatment each reduced divot size in one of the two years. Results indicate that on fall‐use KBG athletic fields with little to no play during the spring and summer, applying TE from May–July can increase divot resistance.

Physiological Responses of Two Cool-season Grass Species to Trinexapac-ethyl under Traffic Stress

Traffic stress is one of the major abiotic stresses that limits grass growth in lawn fields. The severity of losses depends on several factors, including the number of events per season, the athletic field size, and the soil moisture content during the traffic incident. Trinexapac-ethyl (TE) is considered to influence plant tolerance to traffic stress. Therefore, the physiological responses of the wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum L.) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea L. cv. Rebel) species to different levels of TE and traffic stress were investigated. A factorial experiment including combination of TE application and traffic stress treatments was performed based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications in 2014 and 2015. The treatments, including traffic stress (traffic and nontraffic stress) and TE at three levels (0, 0.25, and 0.5 kg·ha−1), were applied once every 3 weeks. The simulated traffic stress was imposed using a Brinkman traffic simulator (BTS). The results showed that traffic stress reduced the turf quality, relative water content (RWC), total chlorophyll content, and antioxidant activity and increased electrolyte leakage (EL), soluble sugar content (SSC), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in both species. Conversely, TE increased the turf quality, RWC, SSC, and total chlorophyll and resulted in less EL and MDA in both species. Furthermore, TE application increased the superoxide dismutase (SOD) (EC 1.15.1.1), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) (EC 1.11.1.11), and peroxidase (POD) (EC 1.111.1.7) activities, especially under traffic stress conditions. TE application enhanced the resistance to traffic stress in both species by improving the osmotic adjustment and antioxidant activity.

Comparing the Rutgers Wear Simulator, Cady Traffic Simulator, and Brinkman Traffic Simulator

Comparing the Rutgers Wear Simulator, Cady Traffic Simulator, and Brinkman Traffic Simulator

The effect of traffic on turfgrass root morphological features

Foot traffic is recognised as the most frequent and damaging stress to sports turf. Wear and compaction caused by play can be a greater factor contributing to differences among turfgrass species to traffic stresses. A better understanding of factors affecting wear tolerance is likely to be a useful tool for grass breeders in terms of cultivar recommendations for sports fields. The objective of this study was to determine whether the wear tolerance of turfgrass cultivars was dependent on root morphology. The experiment was conducted in 2012 and 2013 in Paczoltowice in the south of Poland. This field trial was set out in a split-plot design arranged in randomised complete blocks with three replications with cultivars as a main plot and traffic treatment as a subplot compared with an untreated control. Thirty seven cultivars, representing seven turfgrass species were established on loamy sand. Traffic treatments were applied as a strip using Brinkman traffic simulator (BTS). Roots in the experimental plots were sampled from the 0 to 15cm soil layer in June 2012 and June 2013. Root morphological parameters were determined namely root length density (RLD), mean root diameter (MRD), root surface area (RSA) and root dry matter (RDM). Wear resistance of turfgrass cultivars was estimated using the Turf Cover Index (TCI) based on the percentage of turf cover on control and treated plots.The results showed significant differences among the tested cultivars, in terms of all root morphological characteristics. The highest root biomass and length was produced by cultivars in the upper 0–5cm soil layer. The most frequent fraction of the RLD for all tested cultivars was that with a diameter of 0.05–0.1mm, representing approximately 63% of all root length. It was observed that the tested cultivars significantly differed in their TCI after the BTS compaction. The poorest wear tolerance, was recorded for most of Festuca ovinacultivars, namely ‘Bardur’, ‘Barok’, and ‘Noni’ and some of Festuca rubra, ‘Audubon’, ‘Dark’ and ‘Nimba’. All cultivars of Lolium perenne were assessed as having a very good wear tolerance. The roots of investigated turfgrass cultivars showed a different reaction to trafficking. Most of the investigated cultivars reacted negatively to the traffic simulation by Brinkman roller. The BTS treatment reduced root length, dry matter and surface. However, some cultivars, mainly those of L. perenne,showed positive reactions to trafficking. It was found that the wear tolerance was positively correlated with the RLD in the root diameter range from 0.1 to 2.0mm. The higher RDM, RSA and MRD increased wear resistance of turfgrass cultivars.

Anatomical and morphological factors affecting wear tolerance of turfgrass

One of the main criterions in turfgrass breeding selection is good wear tolerance, which means the plant's ability to withstand forces that crush leaves, stems, crowns and roots. In the present study the relationship between the anatomical and morphological traits and wear tolerance of 37 cultivars of seven turfgrass species was investigated. The wear tolerance of turf was determined using a Brinkman traffic simulator during a field trial over a two-year period from 2012 to 2013. The experimental plots were established with three replications in a randomized block design. The anatomical and morphological characteristics of the above-ground part of grasses were analyzed. Based on the quantitative data obtained, a new index reflecting turf appearance, and in particular turf cover (TCI), quality (TQI) and shoot density (SDI) has been proposed. These new wear tolerance indexes created could be a very helpful and useful tool for breeding and research purposes. Standardized trait mean values were used to perform principal component and hierarchical cluster analysis. The relationship between leaf parameters and turf indexes was analyzed using multiple linear regression in a stepwise procedure.According to the TCI, the most wear-resistant cultivars were those of Lolium perenne, Ilso Nira and Oxiana (−0.04 in average). As turf quality was considered, all cultivars of L. perenne and Poa pratensis were characterized as high quality after BTS compaction with the TQI below 0.1. The shoot density of untreated turf cultivars varied in a wide range from 2.23 to 6.18 shoots per cm2. For most of the cultivars the BTS compaction reduced shoot density by 27% on average. The increase in the number of vascular bundles, leaf width, leaf cross-section area and leaf angle were associated with better wear tolerance. Wider leaves with a higher number of vascular bundles together with the higher angle between the leaf and tiller axis, improved the wear resistance. It was also observed that higher tillering does not favour wear tolerance. This information concerning the relationships between turf traits and wear tolerance is of use to the plant breeder as a tool for the selection of appropriate turfgrass cultivars.

Influence of simulated traffic and roots of turfgrass species on soil pore characteristics

A field experiment was conducted during the period of 2011 to 2012 to study the effect of traffic on physical properties of soil when different turfgrass species were cultivated. Experimental plots were established with three replications in a split-plot design with species as a main plot and traffic treatment as a subplot. The traffic treatment was applied to the turfgrass using Brinkman traffic simulator (BTS). Two levels of treatments were applied: non-trafficked vs. trafficked. Four grass species were used, Festuca arundinacea, Festuca rubra, Poa pratensis and Lolium perenne. The BTS compaction was applied every week since the beginning of April to the end of November. Physical parameters of soil, bulk density, total porosity and penetration resistance were determined. Based on the water retention characteristic curve, the pore size distribution, available water content (AWC), productive water content (PWC) and relative water capacity (RWC) were calculated. Root parameters like length density (RLD) and dry matter (RDM) were determined as well.Both experimental factors, grass species and BTS compaction, changed soil physical parameters, penetration resistance, bulk density and total porosity. These changes were results of modification of pore system. Large pores were modified by grass species and BTS compaction. However, storage pores of 0.5–50μm in diameter were affected only by grass roots. This reflected in the water retention characteristics of the soil. The RWC ratio indicated poor water conditions prevailing in the soil except trafficked two grass species, namely F. arundinacea and L. perenne. The highest water retention in the range of the AWC was noticed for F. arundinacea (0.191cm3cm−3) and for L. perenne (0.187cm3cm−3). Significantly lower AWC was recorded for F. rubra and P. pratensis, 0.151 and 0.141cm3cm−3, respectively. The similar relationship was also observed for the PWC. It was found that changes in the AWC and PWC can be explained by the root parameters. The higher root biomass concentration in the soil had a beneficial effect on the soil water retention. It can be concluded that F. arundinacea and L. perenne can be recommended for turfgrasses with irrigation system where the water resources are limited.

Overseeding and Trinexapac-ethyl Effects on Tolerance to Simulated Traffic of Four Bermudagrass Cultivars Grown as a Sand-based Athletic Field

Common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) and hybrid bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon var. dactylon × C. transvaalensis) often are used for athletic fields as a result of their wear tolerance and recuperative ability. A wear tolerance study was conducted May 2007 through Nov. 2008 in Lexington, KY. Plots were managed as athletic turf and simulated traffic was applied during the Kentucky high school football seasons. The cultivars Quickstand, Tifway 419, Riviera, and Yukon grown in a sand-based medium were evaluated. Trinexapac-ethyl (TE) was applied at label rates and frequencies or left untreated. Overseeding treatments were perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) at 0, 546, and 1093 lb/acre pure live seed. Traffic treatments were applied with a Brinkman traffic simulator three times per week, once each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, without regard to soil moisture status or weather for the periods 10 Sept. to 2 Nov. 2007 and 12 Sept. to 14 Nov. 2008. In both years of the study, the main effect of cultivar was significant (P < 0.05) in traffic tolerance (‘Tifway 419’ = ‘Riviera’ > ‘Quickstand’ = ‘Yukon’). Overseeding at the medium and high rates also provided significantly greater turf cover for the coarse-textured, more open cultivars (Quickstand and Yukon) over the fine-textured, more dense cultivars (Riviera and Tifway 419). Applications of TE did not significantly improve tolerance to simulated athletic traffic in either year of the study regardless of cultivar or overseeding treatment. Within the parameters of this study, data indicate that only cultivar has significant effects on tolerance to simulated traffic on a sand-based field. Overseeding treatments for the fine-textured, more dense cultivars and TE applications on sand-based field systems had no positive significant effects on tolerance to simulated traffic.

Seeded Bermudagrass Tolerance to Simulated Athletic Field Traffic as Affected by Cultivars and Trinexapac-ethyl

Use of seeded-bermudagrasses (Cynondon dactylon) is expanding rapidly, especially on high-use athletic fields. Previous work has defined significant differences in several parameters among cultivars. Experiments were conducted in Lexington, KY, in 2004 and 2005 to test the tolerance of the cultivars Riviera, Princess, Transcontinental, Savannah, Yukon, and the experimental line SWI 1012, with and without applications of trinexapac-ethyl to simulated athletic traffic. Plots were established in June of each year and managed as athletic field turf. Simulated traffic was applied using a Brinkman traffic simulator during high school football seasons in Kentucky at a level roughly equivalent to three games per week. Percentage of bermudagrass cover was visually rated weekly during the trafficking periods each year. Turfgrass quality was rated once before beginning traffic treatments each year. There were no consistent significant interactions (P > 0.05) among trinexapac-ethyl treatments and cultivars in either year of the study for either response variable. The main effect of cultivars was highly significant (P < 0.0001) for percentage of bermudagrass cover in both years of the study. Among cultivars, the ranges of percentage of bermudagrass cover at the end of the trafficking periods were 10.2% to 39.2% and 43.3% to 76.7% in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The main effects of trinexapac-ethyl on percentage of bermudagrass cover were significant (P < 0.0052) and more pronounced in 2004. Significant differences (P < 0.0200) were also recorded in 2005. Applications of trinexapac-ethyl resulted in increased tolerance to simulated traffic and improved turfgrass quality. Under the conditions of this study, data indicate that both cultivars and regular applications of trinexapac-ethyl have significant effects on overall turfgrass quality and the tolerance of these seeded bermudagrasses to simulated traffic.

Evaluating Traffic Stress by the Brinkman Traffic Simulator and Cady Traffic Simulator on a Kentucky Bluegrass Stand

ABSTRACTThe Brinkman Traffic Simulator (BTS) has been a useful tool to simulate sports field traffic. However, rate of traffic stress produced by the BTS, a pull‐behind unit with two differentially connected studded rollers, has been questioned. The Cady Traffic Simulator (CTS), a modified walk‐behind core cultivation unit, was developed and tested to potentially produce more aggressive traffic stress. A comparison study was initiated between the BTS and CTS to evaluate these simulators on a Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) stand. Playing surface data collected were surface hardness, traction, soil moisture, bulk density, porosity, and plant counts. Higher surface hardness, lower traction, and lower plant count values resulted when the CTS applied 10 passes per week (PPW) compared with other treatments. Surface hardness, traction, and bulk density values were statistically similar when the CTS applied 2 PPW, and BTS applied 10 PPW.

A NEW APPARATUS TO SIMULATE ATHLETIC FIELD TRAFFIC: THE CADY TRAFFIC SIMULATOR

Realistic traffic simulation is crucial to the validity of athletic field research. Previously developed athletic field traffic simulators contain studded drums that turn at different speeds, creating shear forces at the playing surface. The Cady Traffic Simulator (CTS) (a modified walk‐behind core cultivation unit) was developed at Michigan State University in 2000. The objective of this study was to compare the magnitude and direction of the forces produced by two traffic simulators: the Brinkman Traffic Simulator (BTS), a pull‐behind unit, and the CTS. Both simulators were operated over an in‐ground force plate, which measured the forces in three directions: front to back, side to side, and vertical. The CTS produced a higher compressive stress and net shear stress when operated in either direction than the BTS. The average peak compressive stress produced by the feet of the CTS when operated in the forward direction was approximately 30 times higher than the combined compressive stresses of both BTS drums. The average peak net shear stress produced by the feet of the CTS when operated in the forward direction was approximately 15 times higher than the combined net shear stresses of both BTS drums. Operating in the reverse direction, the average peak compressive stress produced by the feet of the CTS was greater than five times the compressive stresses of both BTS drums combined. The average peak net shear stress produced by the feet of the CTS was approximately four times higher than the combined net shear stresses of both BTS drums.

Simulated Traffic on Turfgrass Topdressed with Crumb Rubber

AbstractTopdressing plays a vital role in turfgrass subjected to traffic. Sand is commonly used for topdressing; under suboptimal growing conditions, however, methods to maintain wear tolerance are limited. There has been recent interest in using crumb rubber from recycled tires as an amendment for turfgrass areas. A topdressing study was initiated in July 1993 to determine the effect of crumb rubber on turfgrass systems subjected to traffic. A factorial randomized complete block design with three replications was implemented with two crumb rubber particle sizes (large, 6.0–2.0 mm; small, 2.0–0.05 mm) and five topdressing rates (0.0, 17.1, 34.2, 44.1, and 88.2 t ha−1) on a 1‐yr‐old Kentucky bluegrass‐perennial ryegrass (Poa pratensis L.‐Lolium perenne L.) stand. In 1993 and 1994, 96 passes were made with a Brinkman traffic simulator. Surface hardness characteristics measured were peak deceleration, time to peak deceleration, and impact duration. The small crumb rubber size was more effective in increasing impact time periods than the large crumb rubber, but had no effect on peak deceleration values. Shear resistance values decreased by as much as 40% as crumb rubber volumes increased in 1993, but were increased by 20% in 1994 after rubber particles had settled to the soil surface. There was generally an increase in turf cover under traffic as crumb rubber rates increased above 34.1 t ha−1, and the small crumb rubber was more effective in 1993. Our results suggest that crumb rubber can alter surface characteristics and increase wear tolerance of turfgrass exposed to traffic.

Bermudagrass and Cool‐Season Turfgrass Mixtures: Response to Simulated Traffic

AbstractAvailability of newer, more competitive cool‐season grasses has renewed interest in persistent, balanced warm‐ and cool‐season species mixtures for sports turf. In this Missouri study, one‐time overseedings of blends and mixtures of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), Chewings fescue (Festuca rubra L. subsp. commutata Gaud.), hard fescue (Festuca longifolia Thuill.), and creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra L. subsp. rubra Gaud.) were made on established plots of KSU S‐16 and ‘Midiron’ bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.]. One‐half of each plot was subjected to simulated traffic beginning 18 mon after overseeding, using a modified Brinkman traffic simulator. Quality of four mixtures (bermudagrass + Kentucky bluegrass, bermudagrass + perennial ryegrass, bermudagrass + perennial ryegrass + Kentucky bluegrass, and bermudagrass + perennial ryegrass + Kentucky bluegrass + Chewings fescue) remained in an acceptable range at most observation dates after 3 yr of spring‐and‐fall traffic. Bermudagrass control plots were in poor or marginal condition at most observation dates during the same period. Bermudagrass plus fine leaf fescues were severely damaged by simulated traffic. Quality of turf receiving no simulated traffic was generally good and varied seasonally in response to changing environmental conditions. Higher‐impact absorption measurements, based on peak deceleration (maximum g) on turf receiving simulated traffic vs. no traffic, were consistent with decreasing thatch and verdure. Traction (in N·m) decreased on trafficked turf as thatch and aboveground biomass deteriorated. Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass dominated mixtures with bermudagrass after 3 yr, and showed good tolerance to simulated traffic.